COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 
DAVIS,  CALIFORNIA 


AMERICAN    TEACHERS    SERIES 

EDITED    BY 

JAMES   E.  RUSSELL,  PH.D. 

DEAN    OF   TEACH KRS    COLLEGE,    COLUMBIA    UNIVERSITY 


THE    TEACHING    OF    BIOLOGY    IN    THE 
SECONDARY    SCHOOL 

BY 

FRANCIS   E.  LLOYD,  A.M. 

AND 

MAURICE   A.  BIGELOW,  PH.D. 

PROFESSORS   IN    TEACHERS   COLLEGE,    COLUMBIA    UNIVERSITY 


Smertran  JCeacfterrf 


The  Teaching  of  Biology  in 
the  Secondary  School 

BY 

FRANCIS   E.  LLOYD,  A.M. 

AND 

MAURICE   A.  BIGELOW,  PH.D. 

PROFESSORS    IN   TEACHERS   COLLEGE,    COLUMBIA   UNIVERSITY 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

LIBRARY 

COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 
DAVIS 


LONGMANS,  GREEN,  AND    CO. 

91  AND  93  FIFTH  AVENUE,  NEW  YORK 
LONDON,  BOMBAY,  AND  CALCUTTA 

1909 


\    i 


Copyright,  190f 
By  LONGMANS,  GREEN,  AND  Co. 

All  rights  reserved 

First  Edition,  August,  1904 
Reprinted,  July,  1907 
Reprinted,  September,  1909 


UNIVERSITY    PRESS    •   JOHN   WILSON 
AND    SON    •     CAMBRIDGE,     U.S.A. 


Contents 


THE    TEACHING    OF    BOTANY    AND    OF 
NATURE    STUDY 

PAGE 
PREFATORY  NOTE     3 

CHAPTER   I 

The  Value  of  Science,  and  Particularly  of  Biology,  in  Edu- 
cation              7 

CHAPTER   II 
Nature  Study  25 

CHAPTER   III 
The  Value  of  Botany  in  Secondary  Education 62 

CHAPTER    IV 
Principles  Determining  the  Content  of  a  Botanical  Course   .      81 

CHAPTER   V 
The  Various  Types  of  Botanical  Courses 99 

CHAPTER   VI 
Use  of  the  Method  of  Thought  in  Teaching  Botany    ...     124 

CHAPTER   VII 
General  Botanical  Principles  to  be  Emphasized  in  Teaching      135 


vi  .  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER   VIII 

PAGE 
Detailed  Discussion  of  the  Course  in  Botany  for  the  High 

School H2 

CHAPTER    IX 
The  Laboratory,  its  Equipment,  Materials  for  Study  and  for 

Demonstration 209 

CHAPTER   X 
Botanical  Literature  for  the  Use  of  Teachers  and  Students  .     229 

INDEX  .  487 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ZOOLOGY,  INCLUDING 
HUMAN   PHYSIOLOGY 

PREFATORY  NOTE 239 

CHAPTER    I 

The  Educational  Value  of  Zoology  and  the  Aims  of  Zoological 

Teaching  in  Secondary  Schools 241 

The  Value  of  Zoology  as  Discipline 244 

The  Value  of  Zoology  as  Information 246 

CHAPTER    II 

The  Subject-Matter  of  Zoology  from  the  Standpoint  of  the 

Secondary  School 261 

CHAPTER    III 

The  Laboratory  and  the  Scientific  Method  in  the  Teaching 

of  Zoology  in  the  Secondary  School 294 

Place  of  Laboratory  Work  in  Zoological  Teaching   .  295 

Scientific  Method  as  Applied  in  Teaching  Zoology  .  299 

The  Relation  of  Laboratory  Work  and  Book  Work     .  310 

Minor  Problems  of  Laboratory  Work  in  Zoology   .     .  312 


CONTENTS  vii 

CHAPTER    IV 

PAGE 

Animal  Nature-Study  and  Human  Physiology  in  the  Elemen- 
tary School  as  Related  to  Zoology  in  the  Secondary 
School 320 

CHAPTER   V 

The  Position  and  Relations  of  Zoology  in  the  High-School 

Curriculum 331 

Relation  of  Botany  and  Zoology 331 

Position  of  the  Biological  in   Relation  to  the  Other 
Sciences 337 

CHAPTER   VI 

The  Beginning  Work  in  Zoology 340 

Natural  History  in  Beginning  Zoology       .  '  ,      ...  340 

Introduction  to  Physiological  Study 342 

Protozoa  and  Metazoa  as  Introductory  Types     .     .     .  345 

Introduction  to  Zoological  Principles 352 

CHAPTER   VII 

The  Selection  of  Animal  Types  for  a  Laboratory  Course  in 

Zoology 356 

Types  for  the  Introductory  Work 356 

Other  Animals  available  for  Laboratory  Study  .     .     .  362 

CHAPTER   VIII 

An  Outline  for  an  Elementary  Course  in  Zoology     .     .     .     .  37 * 

Introduction 37' 

Outline 372 

Suggested  Modifications  of  the  Outline 39° 

CHAPTER    IX 
Zoological  Materials,  Methods,  and  Special  Equipment    .     .     392 


viii  .  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  X 

PAGB 

Zoological  Books 4*7 

General  Reference  Books 418 

Special  Lists  of  Selected  Books 440 

School  Books  in  Zoology  and  Human  Physiology  .     .  442 

CHAPTER   XI 

The  Relation  of  Zoology  in  Secondary  School  and  College   .  448 

Differentiation  of  Work  for  School  and  College       .     .  448 

Zoology  for  College-Entrance  Credit 454 

CHAPTER   XII 

The  Teaching  of  Human  Physiology  in  Secondary  Schools  456 

Relation  of  Physiology  to  Other  Biological  Sciences  457 

Teaching  the  Essentials  of  "Human  Physiology  ".     .  465 

"Scientific  Temperance"  or  "Temperance  Instruction  "  472 


INDEX 487 


THE  TEACHING  OF  BOTANY  AND  OF 
NATURE    STUDY 


"...  respecting  the  true  measure  of  value  [of  education]  there  can  be  no  dispute. 
Every  one  in  contending  for  the  worth  of  any  particular  order  of  information  does  so  by 
showing  its  bearing  upon  some  part  of  life.  .  .  .  How  to  live?  —  that  is  the  essential 
question  for  us.  Not  how  to  live  in  a  mere  material  sense  only,  but  in  the  widest  sense. 
.  .  .  To  prepare  us  for  complete  living  is  the  function  which  education  has  to  discharge." 

— SPENCER,  H.     Education  :  Intellectual,  Moral,  and  Physical. 


Prefatory  Note 


THE  advances  which  botany  has  made  in  America  during  the 
last  twenty-five  years  have  been  not  alone  in  the  science  itself 
and  in  its  economic  phases,  but  also  in  the  field  of  education. 
From  being  an  occasional  study,  it  has  become  in  our  best 
schools  a  constant  element  in  the  curriculum.  Instead  of  the 
superficial  examination  of  the  external  structures  of  flowers  — 
a  study  supposed  to  be  rather  of  the  nature  of  an  accomplish- 
ment than  a  means  for  wholesome  discipline  —  the  good  course 
in  botany  of  the  present  time  presents  the  important  ideas  of 
all  the  phases  of  the  science,  and  is  based  upon  the  observation 
and  experimentation  of  living  plants. 

These  changes  have  made  necessary  the  employment  of 
teachers  with  a  special  mental  equipment  for  their  peculiar 
task.  From  being  taught  incidentally,  botany  has  become  the 
chief  concern  of  a  large  body  of  men  and  women  who  have 
received  the  best  training  our  schools  have  afforded.  The 
most  important  criticism  which  may  be  made  at  the  present 
time  is  that  those  who  enter  the  profession  of  teaching  in  the 
field  of  botany,  and  its  allied  subject,  zoology,  do  so  generally 
without  any  special  consideration  of  the  problems  which  they 
are  called  upon  to  face  in  their  work. 

It  is  to  bring  the  student  face  to  face  with  these  problems, 
and  to  prepare  him  for  their  intelligent  consideration,  that  this 
book  has  been  written.  Whether  the  solutions  offered  for  such 
problems  as  have  been  discussed  merit  acceptance  is  of  secon- 
dary moment,  if  in  the  use  of  these  pages  the  student  is 


4  TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

stimulated  to  study  carefully  the  subject  of  botany,  not  alone 
from  the  point  of  view  of  the  scientist,  but  also  from  that  of  the 
educator.  If  the  essay  excites  "  to  self-activity,  which  is  the 
best  effect  of  any  book,"  its  chief  use  will  be  accomplished. 

With  this  thought  in  mind,  I  have  not  hesitated  to  champion 
my  own  views  on  the  kind  of  a  course  which  should  be  given 
in  the  high  school.  To  this  end,  though  not  to  this  end 
alone,  I  have  presented  in  so  much  detail  as  the  space  at  my 
disposal  would  permit,  an  outline  for  such  a  course.  Its  use- 
fulness will  lie  in  indicating  the  more  important  bearings  and 
correlations  of  the  various  topics  taken  up  and  the  most  useful 
materials  for  laboratory  work. 

With  regard  to  the  value  of  nature  study  there  may  be  re- 
marked a  considerable  difference  of  opinion  among  educators. 
Many  persons  are  fully  persuaded  that  it  constitutes  a  most 
important  element  of  the  elementary  curriculum,  and  would 
make  it  the  "  centre "  of  the  child's  study.  Others,  on  the 
contrary,  basing  their  judgments  upon  the  more  or  less  satis- 
factory results  which  have  thus  far  accrued,  look  with  dis- 
favor upon  the  whole  movement  towards  the  introduction  of 
nature-study  into  education. 

Believing  that  nature  study  has  both  a  content  and  a  func- 
tion of  real  merit  which  justify  it  in  the  school,  we  must  still 
admit  that  they  are  at  present  rather  ill-defined.  And  admitting 
that  the  results  have  been  in  a  measure  disappointing,  we  can- 
not but  believe  that  this  is  due  to  causes  which  are  normally 
to  be  expected,  and  which  will  at  length  be  removed.  It  has 
been  my  object  in  the  early  chapters  to  defend  the  cause  of 
nature  study  as  a  factor  in  early  education,  and  to  discover 
to  the  student  certain  fundamental  guiding  principles,  the  fail- 
ure to  fully  recognize  which  has,  in  my  belief,  been  a  chief 
cause  of  the  failure  of  the  subject. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  work  I  have  had  the  help  and 


PREFATORY  NOTE  5 

criticism  of  my  teacher,  Professor  George  Macloskie  of 
Princeton  University,  and  of  Professor  Herbert  Maule  Rich- 
ards of  Barnard  College,  both  of  whom  have  read  and  criti- 
cised the  whole  of  the  manuscript.  Professor  Richards  has, 
in  addition,  made  valuable  suggestions  in  regard  to  the  choice 
and  use  of  cryptogamic  materials,  and  has  read  the  proof 
sheets.  It  is  a  great  pleasure  to  express  here  my  cordial 
appreciation  of  their  very  great  kindness. 

F.  E.  LI. 

TEACHERS  COLLEGE, 
March,  1904. 


The 

Teaching  of  Botany  arid  of 
Nature   Study 


CHAPTER   I 

THE    VALUE    OF    SCIENCE,    AND    PARTICULARLY   OP 
BIOLOGY,   IN    EDUCATION 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Bessey,  C.  E.     Science  and  Culture.    Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  p.  939.    1896. 

Butler,  N.  M.  What  Knowledge  is  of  Most  Worth  ?  EDUCATIONAL 
REVIEW,  10 :  105.  September,  1895. 

Butler,  N.  M.  The  Scope  and  Functions  of  Secondary  Education. 
EDUCATIONAL  REVIEW,  16:  15-27.  1898. 

Carhart,  H.  S.  The  Humanistic  Element  in  Science.  Proc.  N.  E.  A., 
p.  943.  1896. 

Coulter,  J.  M.  The  Mission  of  Science  in  Education.  SCIENCE,  II. 
12:  281-293.  24  August,  1900. 

Pitch,  J.  G.    Lectures  on  Teaching,  Chapter  X IV.    New  York.    1901. 

Goebel,  JK.  Organography  of  Plants.  (Translation  by  Balfour.) 
Oxford.  1900. 

Henfrey,  Arthur.  On  the  Educational  Claims  of  Modern  Science : 
a  Lecture  delivered  before  the  London  Society  of  Arts.  Pp.  89-116  of 
a  volume  entitled  The  Culture  demanded  by  Modern  Life.  New  York, 
D.  Appleton  &  Co.  1887. 

Huxley,  T.  H.  Science  and  Education.  Collected  Essays,  Vol. 
III.  D.  Appleton  &  Co.  1898. 

James,  W.  Talks  to  Teachers  on  Psychology,  and  to  Students  on 
Some  of  Life's  Ideals.  New  York,  H.  Holt  &  Co.  1900. 

Jordan,  D.  S.  Nature  Study  and  Moral  Culture.  Proc.  N.  E.  A., 
p.  130.  1896. 

Norton,  W.  H.  The  Social  Service  of  Science.  SCIENCE,  II.,  13 :  644. 
26  April,  1901. 

Pearson,  Karl.  Grammar  of  Science.  London,  A.  &  C.  Black. 
1900. 

Sedgwick,  Wm.  T.  Educational  Value  of  the  Method  of  Science. 
EDUCATIONAL  REVIEW,  5  :  243.  March,  1893. 


8  THE   TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

Spencer,  H.  Education:  Intellectual,  Moral,  and  Physical.  London, 
Williams  &  Norgate.  New  York,  D.  Applet  on  &  Co.  1860. 

Spencer,  H.  Principles  of  Biology.  New  York,  D.  Appleton  &  Co. 
1900. 

Whitney,  Miss  M.  W.  Scientific  Study  and  Work  for  Women. 
EDUCATION,  3  :  58.  September,  1882. 

THAT  biology  is  of  value  in  formal  education  may  be  de- 
fended upon  general  and  upon  special  grounds.  Both  botany 
and  zoology,  as  co-ordinate  divisions  of  biology,  have  educa- 
tional values  which  may  be  similarly  defended.  It  will  then 
be  seen  that  a  general  argument  for  science  in  education  will 
include  biology,  but  we  may  not  therefore  conclude,  without 
further  investigation  into  the  special  merits  of  the  latter,  that 
it  must  have  a  place  in  a  scheme  of  education.  Nor,  similarly, 
may  a  general  argument  for  biology  be  regarded  as  applying 
equally  to  botany  and  to  zoology.  These,  in  turn,  must  be 
justified  by  their  own  peculiar  merits  and  advantages. 

We  may  for  practical  considerations  hold  to  the  statement 
that,  in  order  to  get  along  in  this  world,  we  must  be  able  and 
willing  to  do  things.  For  people  who  work  life  is  made  up, 
for  the  most  part,  of  effort  added  to  effort  in  the  attempt  to 
get  something  and  to  get  somewhere,  which,  as  property  and 
as  ideals,  are  worth  while.  To  be  sure  we  may  have  various 
conceptions  of  what  is  worth  our  effort.  With  both  the  direc- 
tion of  impulse  and  of  effort,  and  with  the  bettering  of  ideals, 
the  process  called  education  has  to  do. 

The  young  of  animals  spend  all  their  waking  moments 
doing  something,  and  are  thus  prepared  for  adult  life.  But 

we  are  all  sufficiently  aware  of  the  fact  that  these 
General  Aim 
of  conscious     actions  are  by  no  means  under  any  great  degree  of 

direction,  and  they  are,  therefore,  more  or  less  hap- 
hazard. The  better  directed  these  efforts,  however,  the  more 
definite  and  beneficial  the  results.  This  is  true  of  human  kind, 
both  of  the  mind  and  of  the  body.  Conscious  efforts  slowly 
but  in  the  long  run  unfailingly  react  upon  the  mind  to  make  it 
a  more  efficient  tool.  Gradually  these  efforts  come  more  and 
more  under  control  On  the  whole,  with  increasing  maturity  a 


THE    VALUE    OF  SCIENCE   IN  EDUCATION      9 

better  judgment  is  developed  as  to  what  is  worth  while  to  do, 
and  a  better  directed  effort  is  maintained  toward  getting  in 
the  way  of  doing  it. 

If  this  conception  of  the  aim  of  formal  education  be  correct 
we  must  conclude  that  science,  and  biology  as  a  part  of  sci- 
ence, to  be  of  any  value  as  an  educational  factor, 

..  ,  ,  .  .      The  Task  of 

must    accomplish    two     things.      It     must     supply   Science  in 

standards  of  thought  and  action,  and  it  must  help 
men  and  women  to  prompt  and  successful  endeavor. 

The  desired  results  may  be  expected  if  it  can  be  shown  that 
science  has  something  in  common  with  ordinary  life ;  and  its 
value  will  be  proportional  to  the  extent  to  which  this  is  true. 

Now  it  has  been  clearly  shown  by  others  that  science,  in  a 
narrow  sense,  has  nothing  which  it  can  claim  as  peculiar  to 
itself  except  the  materials  with  which  it  deals.  The  mental 
processes  by  which  the  generalizations  of  science  have  been 
attained  are,  however,  the  normal  operations  of  the  human 
mind,  refined  and  applied  with  accuracy.  Indeed,  an  impor- 
tant lesson  which  we  learn  from  science  is  the  great  value  of 
these  mental  operations  when  so  controlled.1 

It  must  be  conceded,  therefore,  that  all  the  sciences,  indeed 
all  studies  which  use  the  scientific  method  of  thought,  have, 
by  virtue  of  this  fact,  certain  values  in  education. 

To  accept  this  statement,  however,  without  further  thought 
is  to  rob  unjustly  all  subjects  of  their  special  value.  No  one 
would  for  a  moment  assert  that  arithmetic  and  history,  chem- 
istry and  literature,  have  the  same  educational  value.  Although 
the  method  of  thought  may  be  common  to  them  all,  certainly 
each  one  of  these  fields  of  thought  has  its  own  peculiar  value 
in  education,  since  each  subject  has  a  content,  derived  from 
experience,  which  is  of  a  different  sort  and  which  touches  life 
in  a  different  way  from  the  others.2 

If,  then,  we  conclude  that  all  sciences  have  a  like  general 
value  hPeducation,  based  upon  their  common  use  of  similar 


1  See  Pearson,  Karl,  Grammar  of  Science,  p.  12  ;  Carhart,  '96. 
*  Butler,  N.  M.,  '95. 


10  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

mental  operations,  and  if  we  further  conclude  that  the  special 
values  of  each  of  these  may  be  different,  we  must  set  to  our- 
selves the  task  of  examining  each  branch  of  science  in  order 
to  determine  what  its  special  value  is,  if  it  have  any.  For  the 
present  the  subject  of  biology  must  be  thus  examined. 

I  must  furthermore  take  occasion  to  indicate  the  impor- 
tance of  science  in  education  by  pointing  out  that  it  differs 
Value  of  the  ^rom  otner  studies  in  that  it  has  to  do  with  objec- 
Ob"ectivfe  ^ve  reatities  anc*  our  intellectual  interpretations 
Realities.  based  upon  them.  Now  in  life  we  are  constantly 
dealing  with  two  classes  of  realities,  feelings  *  and  things.  I  use 
feelings  to  include  the  whole  emotional  life,  —  our  loves  and 
hates,  ideals  and  ambitions.  We  all  know  from  every-day  ex- 
perience that  these  are  often  at  variance  with  our  judgments, 
and  our  selfish  motives  are  often  opposed  to  both  our  best  indi- 
vidual and  social  interests.2  It  is  evident  that  education  has 
to  do  with  the  improvement  of  this  condition,  which  is  due 
to  ignorance  and  to  lack  of  strength  to  bring  our  emotions 
into  correspondence  with  the  world  about  us.  We  need  to 
know,  and  we  must  raise  our  ideals  to  the  level  of  our  knowl- 
edge. We  seek  an  uncompromising  recognition  of  the  truth 
and  an  unwavering  determination  not  to  be  led  astray  by 
sophistries.  The  study  of  objective  things  by  means  of  the 
scientific  method  will,  we  believe,  do  this,  because  it  not  only 
trains  the  intellect  but  enforces  the  acceptation  of  ideals,  and 
thus  tends  to  improve  human  conduct.3 

We  have  indicated  that  science,  in  so  far  as  its  method  of 
thought  has  a  common  quality  with  that  of  every-day  life,  is  of 
value  in  education ;  and  further,  that  as  science  deals  directly 
with  objective  realities,  it  constitutes  the  foundation  of  knowl- 
edge, without,  however,  failing  to  instil  high  ideals  of  thought 
and  action. 


1  Huxley,  T.  II.,  Science  and  Education,  Collected  Essays,  Vol.  III., 
New  York,  1898. 

2  Pearson,  Karl,  Grammar  of  Science,  p.  3. 
8  Butler,  N.  M.,  '95;  Jordan,  D.S.,  '96. 


THE    VALUE   OF  SCIENCE  IN  EDUCATION    II 

It  is  now  our  purpose  to  examine  the  field  of  biological 
thought,  in  order  thereby  to  get  some  appreciation  of  its 
relation  to  human  life,  and  at  the  same  time  of  Tne  Special 

its  educational  value.     For  the  present  we  shall  Value  of  Bi- 

ology  in 
discuss  three  aspects  of  this  relation  which  indicate   Education. 

the  general  values  of  biology  in  education. 

We  may  rightly  examine  first  of  all  the  pleasure  value  of 
biology.     It  is  very  generally  true  that  we  are  led  into  a  study 
because  we  take  aesthetic  pleasure  in  the   things 
with  which  it  deals,  and  it  is  the  pleasure  that  we    Value  of 
continually  experience,  as  well  as  the  other  good 
effects  which  accrue,  which  keeps  us  at  it,  unless,  indeed,  it 
becomes  for  some  reason  a  perfunctory  task. 

In  holding  a  broad  view  of  education,  therefore,  we  may 
justly  claim  that  it  should  be  made  responsible,  not  only  for 
the  preparation  of  the  man  to  think  and  to  do  those  things  well 
which  duty  and  necessity  put  upon  him,  but  also  for  the  culti- 
vation of  that  type  of  mind  which  is  able  so  to  interpret  duty 
and  necessity  that  work  shall  have  a  pleasurable  quality  to 
it.  This  quality  is  characteristic  of  the  resourceful,  many- 
sided  mind,  one  which  does  not  remain  unexpanded,  but 
which,  by  virtue  of  a  considerable  degree  of  familiarity  with 
different  sources  of  pleasurable  thought,  grows  in  richness  and 
interest  and  in  power  of  reflection.  Such  is  the  man  whose 
interest  may  amount  even  to  a  hobby,  who  is  constantly  and 
pleasantly  occupied,  and  upon  whose  hands  time  does  not  hang 
heavily.  Not  only  this.  It  makes  one  valuable  and  interest- 
ing to  his  fellow-men.  "  A  man  riding  his  hobby  is  not  the 
most  undesirable  member  of  society.  It  is  rather  the  indif- 
ferent member,  who  has  not  vigor  enough  to  find  a  hobby."  * 
The  value  of  an  avocation  lies  not  alone  in  the  immediate 
pleasure  it  brings :  it  reflects  upon  the  whole  life  in  a  health- 
ful way  ;  it  is  the  play  of  the  mind  which  refreshingly  prepares 
it  for  its  work. 

In  contrast  that  person's  condition  is  pitiable  whose  atti- 


Whitney,  M.  W.,  '82. 


12  THE   TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

tude  toward  pleasure  is  passive ;  who,  insufficient  in  himself, 
has  to  depend  upon  pastimes.  It  is  upon  such  that  pleasure, 
degraded  to  amusement,  soon  palls,  and  it  is  then  that  he  finds 
himself  open  to  an  attack  of  what  Red  Saunders,  in  a  delightful 
story  by  Henry  Wallace  Phillips,  picturesquely  calls  "  measles 
of  the  mind,"  because  he  has  "  nothing  to  do."  This  fur- 
nishes the  clue  to  our  thought,  namely,  that  during  school 
days,  when  the  mind  is  plastic  and  impressionable,  there  shall 
be  a  very  earnest  endeavor  to  offer  opportunities  for  children 
to  become  acquainted  with  plants  and  animals.  Later  on  in 
life  this  knowledge  may  serve  the  useful  turn  of  leading  its 
possessors  to  engage  their  spare  time  in  enjoyable  pursuits,  in 
the  direction  of  study  and  observation,  which,  like  that  of 
music,  entail  no  bad  effect. 

It  is  peculiarly  true  of  biology  that  its  relations  to  human 
life  are  so  numerous  and  intimate  that  almost  all  people, 
young  and  old,  readily  find  pleasure  in  pursuit  of  it,  and  that 
as  knowledge  and  experience  are  extended  the  opportunities 
and  capacities  for  enjoyment  are  multiplied. 

This  matter,  in  its  effect  upon  human  life,  particularly  in 
certain  directions,  is  far  more  important  than  on  the  surface 
it  may  appear.  We  refer  to  the  problem  of  the  betterment  of 
the  rural  population.  The  recognition  of  this  need  is  seen 
in  many  directions,  as  for  example,  educationally  in  the  cen- 
tralization of  the  schools,  the  special  education  of  the  farmer, 
and  otherwise  in  the  improved  postal  service,  the  movement 
for  good  roads,  tree  planting,  and  like  things  of  educational  as 
well  as  of  economic  value.  But  in  the  direction  of  the  de- 
velopment of  the  aesthetic  side  of  their  natures  the  people  of 
the  country  have  almost  wholly  been  neglected.  This  is,  of 
course,  inevitable  in  a  new  country,  though  it  is  regretfully 
true  in  the  majority  of  older  ones.  But  the  conditions  under 
which  this  can  longer  continue  to  be  true  are  now  no  more. 
As  a  class,  American  farmers  are  more  restive  under  their 
conditions  than  in  any  other  country,  and  one  evidence  of 
this  is  seen  in  the  flow  of  population  from  the  country  into 


THE    VALUE   OF  SCIENCE  IN  EDUCATION  13 

the  city.  While  this  is  desirable  and  necessary  up  to  a  cer- 
tain limit,  it  is  nevertheless  true  that  there  are  many  who  are 
driven  from  the  country  rather  than  attracted  to  the  city. 
One  cure  for  the  undesirableness  and  unattractiveness  of 
country  life  may  be  found  in  the  broadening  of  the  interest  of 
the  people  by  the  development  of  their  aesthetic  pleasures, 
especially  those  connected  with  the  study  of  animate  nature, 
as  well  as  by  increasing  their  intellectual  grasp  of  their  work. 
Some  work  in  the  right  direction  has  already  been  done  in 
certain  quarters,  and  the  effort  cannot  be  too  much  com- 
mended. This  has  been  done  by  the  circulation  of  sugges- 
tions and  information,  through  the  medium  of  Nature  Study 
Leaflets,  for  the  planting  of  trees,  the  beautifying  of  school 
grounds,  and  the  arrangement  of  gardens.  Nothing,  perhaps, 
in  the  country  looks  so  desolate  as  the  average  schoolhouse, 
which  with  a  little  well-directed  effort  could  be  made  attrac- 
tive. At  the  same  time  the  work  may  be  done  so  as  to  insti- 
tute a  part  of  education  ;  in  fact,  it  must  be  done  in  this  way 
if  it  is  to  bear  permanent  results  in  the  lives  of  the  pupils.  It  is 
eminently  proper  also  that  a  very  considerable  stress  should  be 
laid  upon  the  artistic  side  of  garden  making,  for  here  in  the 
garden  are  opportunities  in  abundance  for  the  normal  expres- 
sion of  aesthetic  feelings.  We  believe,  therefore,  that  in  ele- 
mentary education  the  work  in  nature  study  should  be  directed 
toward  elementary  agriculture  and  horticulture,  and  that  these 
should  be  managed  so  as  to  cultivate  a  desire  for  the  beautiful, 
and  also  good  taste  and  intelligence  in  its  gratification. 

All  this  is  true  also  for  the  townspeople,  but  in  a  special 
way.  The  opportunities  in  cities  are  far  more  restricted,  and 
it  becomes  a  much  more  serious  task  to  provide  for  the  great 
numbers  of  children.  The  most  important  step  toward  meet- 
ing this  rjeed  lies  in  the  effort  to  give  to  the  young  mind  an 
intelligent  and  appreciative  attitude  toward  nature,  and  this 
may  be  done  by  the  worthy  teacher  through  nature  study  and 
biology  for  the  child  and  youth. 

In  the  second  place,  we  propose  to  show  that  biology  has  a 


14  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

special  value  in  education  because  of  the  discipline  which  it 
Biology  as  Sives  to  tne  mmd  engaged  in  its  study.  We  have 
SeSod  of  ta  alreacty  drawn  attention  to  the  fact  that  in  biologi- 
Thought.  cai  science  we  are  concerned,  not  with  a  different 
method  of  thought,  but  with  different  materials  from  those  of 
the  other  sciences.  It  follows,  therefore,  that  whatever  differ- 
ences in  educational  value  the  various  sciences  possess  these 
must  be  due  chiefly  to  the  nature  of  the  things  with  which  they 
deal.  And  the  likeness  of  value  by  the  same  token  must  be 
referred  to  the  common  factor  of  method.  In  the  paragraphs 
which  now  follow  we  are  to  ask  ourselves  in  what  ways  biology 
is  peculiar  as  to  materials,  and  what  these  indicate  as  to  its 
distinctive  values  in  education. 

As  compared  with  other  natural  sciences,  the  materials  with 
which  the  biologist  has  to  concern  himself  are  more  complex. 
This  is,  of  course,  connected  with  the  fact  that  the  phenomena 
of  life  are  as  much  more  complex  and  diverse  than  inorganic 
phenomena  as  the  "  physical  basis  of  life  "  is  more  complex 
structurally  than  other  non-living  substances.  The  structure 
of  the  parts  of  a  living  body  cannot  be  understood  except  in 
the  light  of  the  functions  which  they  perform  or  the  work 
which  they  do ;  and  the  reverse  is  equally  true,  that  in  order 
to  comprehend  the  behavior  of  an  organ  or  body  as  a  whole, 
attention  must  be  given  to  its  structure. 

The  truth  of  this  is  more  apparent  when  we  realize  that 
such  distinctions  as  for  the  sake  of  convenience  we  draw 
between  physiology  and  morphology  are,  to  adopt  the  lan- 
guage of  Goebel,  artificial  and  imperfect,  and  they  may  be 
maintained  only  so  long  as  they  do  good  service.  "As  a 
matter  of  fact,  it  [/.  e.  the  study  of  morphology  alone]  has 
finally  led  to  one-sidedness,  and  its  outcome  has  not  infre- 
quently been  empty  theorizing.  In  nature  the  form  and  func- 
tion of  an  organ  stand  in  the  most  intimate  relation  to  each 
other;  one  is  caused  by  the  other."1  Herbert  Spencer2  haj 

.* 

1  Goebel,  K.,  Organography  of  Plants,  p.  4.  ^ 

2  Principles  of  Biology,  Vol.  II.,  p.  4. 


THE    VALUE   OF  SCIENCE  IN  EDUCATION      15 

also  emphasized  the  point.  "  Science  can  give  no  true  interpre- 
tation of  Nature  without  keeping  the  co-operation  of  structure 
and  function  constantly  in  view." 

It  is  inevitable  that  bodies  of  which  it  is  true  that  there  is  a 
constant  adjustment  between  each  of  their  parts  and  the  rest, 
and  between  each  part,  together  with  the  whole,  and  the 
environment,  involving  constant  change  of  form  and  function, 
should  offer  difficult  and  complex  materials  for  study. 

Again,  the  difficulty  of  study  of  biological  materials  is  not 
at  all  decreased  by  the  conditions  of  our  advancing  knowl- 
edge. We  know  so  little  and  so  many  things  remain  to  be 
searched  out  that  we  constantly  have  to  stop  and  proclaim 
our  ignorance.  The  teacher  cannot,  therefore,  bring  to  the 
student  a  finished  product.  Many  explanations  must  be  made 
tentatively  but  not  gratuitously,  and  the  appeal  to  experi- 
ment and  logical  tests  must  be  constant.  Many  apparently 
sound  interpretations,  even  though  they  appear  in  books,  must 
be  frankly  cast  aside.  Many  teachers  feel  that  it  is  an  unsatis- 
factory task  when  "I  don't  know  "  mmst  be  the  more  frequent 
answer.  There  is,  however,  no  real  reason  for  this  feeling.  It 
is  precisely  in  this  that  biology  finds  its  power  as  training.  It 
makes  us  question  everything  for  which  we  do  not  find  evi- 
dence, and  in  leading  us  to  confess  our  ignorance  makes  for 
intellectual  honesty. 

Not  only,  then,  are  the  materials  themselves,  if  objectively 
considered,  difficult  of  observation,  but  the  reasoning  based 
upon  these  observations  is  correspondingly  complex  and  elu- 
sive, and  the  ratio  of  probability  to  the  number  of  observations 
less  than  in  other  natural  sciences.  We  shall  recur  to  these 
points  in  another  part  of  this  work,  where  we  shall,  in  more 
detail,  show  their  practical  bearings  on  teaching.  For  the 
present  we  may  say  that  these  features  of  biological  study  may 
readily  be  thought  on  first  consideration  to  be  serious  disad- 
vantages to  its  use  in  education,  and  of  course  they  certainly 
increase  the  difficulty  of  the  pedagogics  concerned.  What, 
however,  educationally  considered,  seem  to  be  disadvantages, 


1 6  THE   TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

are  really  advantages  when  we  consider  the  end  of  education, 
which  in  a  broad  sense  is  to  prepare  for  living.  In  life  we 
are  called  upon  to  make  an  immense  number  of  inferences  and 
judgments,  upon  the  correctness  of  which  our  well-being  and 
happiness  rest.  The,  more  complex  the  circumstances  requir- 
ing judgment,  the  more  delicate  and  cautious  must  the  latter 
be,  and  the  more  profoundly  are  our  lives  affected  by  the 
results  contingent  upon  it. 

Indeed,  the  practical  affairs  of  life  are  of  such  complexity  as 
to  call  fora  delicate,  complex,  and  cautious  judgment,  and  any 
study  which  beyond  others  will  develop  to  any  degree  whatever 
such  a  judgment  will  have  an  educational  value  correlated  with 
the  delicacy  of  reasoning  demanded  by  its  materials.  In  other 
words,  if  we  regard  the  study  of  human  affairs  as  sociology  —  a 
very  complex  study,  involving  the  understanding  of  the  work- 
ings of  the  body  and  of  the  mind  of  the  individual  taken  alone 
and  in  segregate  —  that  study  which  most  nearly  approaches  in 
complexity  that  of  sociology,  and  is  at  the  same  time  of  practi- 
cal use  in  elementary  education,  must  have  the  definite  value 
above  indicated. 

We  may  by  way  of  summary  present  the  case  in  somewhat 
different  form.  Life  for  each  individual  is  a  series  of  sociolog- 
ical problems  of  a  very  practical  nature.  Each  of  these  has 
to  be  examined  to  determine  the  facts  involved,  and  some  con- 
clusion must  be  drawn  as  to  the  course  of  action  to  be  pur- 
sued. The  conclusions  arrived  at  are  then  examined  in  the 
light  of  former  experience.  These  operations  are  not  always 
consciously  gone  through  with ;  on  the  contrary,  they  are  in 
the  very  great  proportion  of  cases  quite  rapid  and  unconscious, 
and  in  the  young  and  the  unthinking,  for  whom  the  problems 
are  comparatively  simple,  entirely  so.  Nevertheless,  this  pro- 
cess, which  is  induction  first  of  all,  then  deduction,  is  the  logic 
of  real  life,  with  which  we  are  busied  from  infancy  to  old  age. 

But,  like  the  action  of  the  untutored  body,  the  greatest 
effectiveness  of  thought  comes  with  its  voluntary  and  intelli- 
gent control,  when  the  case  demands  it,  aside  from  habitual 


THE    VALUE   OF  SCIENCE  IN  EDUCATION      I/ 

thought  and  action.  In  addition  to  the  fact  that  biology,  or 
some  phase  of  it,  as  a  subject  of  study  is  especially  pleasing  to 
some  people,  —  a  matter  which  in  its  relation  to  education  we 
have  above  discussed, —  its  value  as  discipline  may  be  estimated 
in  part  by  its  parallelism  in  detail  to  the  method  of  thought 
in  real  life ;  and  we  have  already  shown  that  this  method  of 
thought  is  rendered  like  that  of  real  life  by  virtue  of  the  com- 
plexity of  materials  making  for  caution.1  And  this  is  our  con- 
tention as  to  the  training  obtainable  in  the  special  field  of 
biology,  in  the  general  methods  of  thought  in  life. 

In  the  third  place  there  attaches  to  biological  study  a  pecu- 
liar humanistic  value,  as  measured  by  its  usefulness  in  the 
amelioration  of  human  conditions.  To  recount 

even  the  achievements  of  biology  alone,  aside  from  Value  in  Reia- 
11  u    .  i    l  f      f  L     lion  to  Health, 

science  as  a  whole,  would  take  us  too  far  from  the 

main  line  of  the  present  discussion.  We  shall,  however,  point 
out  somewhat  definitely  the  more  important  sociological  factors 
which  the  biologist  has  influenced.  We  may  mention  first  the 
matter  of  disease  and  its  control.  The  mere  determination  of 
one  fact,  namely,  the  causal  relation  between  certain  organ- 
isms and  disease,  lies  at  the  foundation  of  a  vast  and  efficient 
method  of  preventive  hygiene  so  far  reaching  in  its  results  that 
among  enlightened  peoples  many  diseases  which  once  were  the 
scourge  of  whole  continents  are  now  no  longer  feared  because 
we  know  how  to  control  the  conditions  under  which  these  dis- 
eases spread.  What  we  now  fear  is  ignorance  which  begets 
negligence  and  indifference  to  sanitary  conditions. 

The  results  of  efforts  in  these  directions  as  they  become 
known  through  the  public  prints2  constitute, in  the  shape  of 
information  a  means  of  public  education  ;  and  while  people  in 
general  are  far  from  realizing  anything  like  a  satisfactory  con- 
ception of  social  and  individual  cleanliness,  to  say  nothing  of 


1  Henfrey,  '87,  p.  99. 

2  One  of  the  triumphs  of  modern  science  is  seen  in  the  wonderful 
record  made  in  the  control  of  yellow  fever  in  the  city  of  Havana  after 
American  occupancy. 

2 


1 8  THE   TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

practice,  nevertheless  a  new  meaning  attaches  to  the  word, 
which  will  sooner  or  later  be  realized  in  the  practical  hygiene 
of  daily  life.  But  while  the  spread  of  information  concerning 
the  results  of  scientific  inquiry  and  the  application  of  methods 
of  hygiene  through  the  medium  of  the  press,  and  by  the  work 
of  boards  of  health  and  other  forms  of  public  service,  is  a 
means  of  great  value  in  the  education  of  the  public  at  large, 
we  are  convinced  that  the  only  certain  way  of  doing  the  same 
thing  with  results  of  permanent  value  is  through  the  education 
of  the  youth,  not  only  by  the  dissemination  of  information,  but 
also  by  training  in  the  method  of  thought  by  which  prog- 
ress in  knowledge  of  this  kind  is  made.  For,  we  repeat,  it  is 
training  in  exact  methods  of  scientific  thought  which  alone 
makes  constant  improvement  possible.  Upon  the  ability  to 
appreciate  the  value  of  and  to  use  the  scientific  method  rests 
the  faith  that  the  results  which  accrue  to  science  may  and 
must  be  received  and  applied  to  human  life. 

Again,  we  may  notice  the  great  debt  which  agriculture  owes 
to  biological  science.  At  the  present  time  the  agricultural 
TO  Food  Pro-  c^ass  *s  tne  largest,  and  it  is  and  will  remain  the 
duction.  chief  of  economic  forces.  The  efficiency  of  the 
labor  of  this  class  depends  upon  the  intelligent  use  of  the  soil, 
which  is  depleted  by  the  growth  of  crops.  How  to  get  the 
best  results  in  food  value  from  these  crops,  and  at  the  same 
time  to  maintain  the  quality  of  the  soil,  are  questions,  there- 
fore, worthy  of  the  most  earnest  efforts  of  the  human  mind. 
The  justification  of  this  statement  may  be  found  in  the  splen- 
did discoveries  concerning  the  relation  of  living  organisms  to 
the  nitrogen  content  of  the  soil.  In  these  discoveries  is  con- 
tained the  solution  of  the  problem  of  the  renewal  of  the  soil, 
and  to  them  will  be  due  the  preservation  of  the  quality  of  the 
soil  in  spite  of  the  constant  seaward  drain  of  the  nitrogen 
compounds  from  the  land  by  the  sewage  systems  of  centres  of 
population.  The  practical  application  of  our  knowledge  is  as 
yet  not  completely  worked  out,  but  this  is  only  the  matter  of 
a  short  time  and  of  effort.  Even  at  this  moment,  however,  it 


THE    VALUE   OF  SCIENCE  IN  EDUCATION      19 

may  be  recorded  as  one  of  the  great  achievements  of  modern 
biological  science.1 

The  investigation  of  soils  is  but  one  line  of  work.  Many 
other  problems  of  this  and  of  kindred  nature  are  constantly 
occupying  the  attention  of  naturalists.  We  may  cite  at  ran- 
dom the  conservation  of  our  forests,  the  selection  of  better 
races  of  stock  and  of  food  plants,  the  diagnosis  and  control 
of  plant  and  animal  diseases,  the  discovery,  and  the  exact 
study  of  the  characters  and  properties  of  medicinal  plants, 
the  proper  manipulation  of  food  products  and  of  raw  materials 
for  manufactures,  in  which  the  action  of  bacteria  plays  so  large 
a  role,  and  other  kinds  of  investigation  of  far-reaching  results 
in  its  effect  upon  the  welfare  of  man.2  Upon  such  work  the 
government  of  America  spends  at  present  the  large  but  still 
very  inadequate  sum  of  approximately  $5,013,960  (1903),  and 
no  moneys  are  put  to  better  use. 

It  would  appear  that  the  youth  of  the  country  should  not 
be  ignorant  of  the  function  of  the  State  in  these  matters  ;  of  the 
nature  of  the  work  which  is  carried  on  by  the  public  service 
in  the  persons  of  biologists  who  are  devoting  their  lives  to  it ; 
of  the  chief  results  which  have  accrued  ;  or  of  their  own  re- 
sponsibilities as  citizens  with  intelligent  interest  in  the  welfare 
of  their  country  and  of  the  human  family.  There  is,  indeed, 
no  greater  nor  less  reason  for  this  than  for  the  study  of  the 
history  of  their  country.  As  the  integrity  of  our  own  form  of 
government  rests  'ultimately  upon  the  intelligent  exercise  of 
the  powers  of  citizenship,  so  the  work  of  the  government  in 
the  conservation  of  our  natural  resources  may  be  carried  for- 
ward to  a  legitimate  and  successful  issue  only  with  the  acqui- 
escence and  intelligent  support  of  the  population. 


1  Since  writing  this,  the  problem  above  indicated  has  been  worked 
out  in  its  practical  bearings  in  a  remarkable  way  by  Dr.  G.  T.  Moore,  of 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.     For  an  account  by  him 
see    Bacteria  and  the  Nitrogen  Problem,    Yearbook  of  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  p.  333.      1902. 

2  For  a  good  discussion  of  the  present  topic,  see  Norton,  W.  H.,  The 
Social  Service  of  Science.     Science,  II.,  13:  644.     26  April,  1901. 


20  THE   TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

To  this  end  the  people  must  be  educated  in  the  subject-mat- 
ter and  method  of  biological  thought,  and  this  must  be  done  in 
such  a  way  as  to  disseminate  the  most  useful  and  important 
information  concerning  the  relation  of  biology  to  human  prog- 
ress ;  and  we  assert  that  to  give  the  study  of  biology  this  use- 
ful trend  is  not  in  the  least  to  lower  the  educational  and  culture 
value,  but  the  rather  to  render  more  people  intelligent  and  cul- 
tured in  a  broad  and  true  sense. 

Perhaps  one  of  the  greatest  services  to  humanity  which  has 
ever  been  rendered  by  science  is  that  seen  in  the  effect  which 
it  has  had  upon  the  nature  of  labor,  and  the  esteem 
in  which  the  laborer  is  held.1  This  is,  of  course, 
due  to  no  one  cause,  and  is,  indeed,  a  phenomenon  too  complex 
for  a  mere  tyro  in  economics  to  attempt  to  analyze.  But  cer- 
tainly one  of  the  factors  among  many  others  is  found  in  the 
development  of  skilled  labor,  and  this  is  due  to  the  application 
of  science  to  agriculture  and  the  industries,  and  in  the  recogni- 
tion of  the  needs  of  the  people  in  the  building  up  of  technical 
and  scientific  schools.  By  virtue  of  these  things  the  dignity  of 
the  laborer  is  in  the  measure  of  the  intelligence  which  he  brings 
to  his  labor.  Recurring  to  the  farmer,  we  know  that  a  few 
years  ago  his  work  was  a  mere  drudgery  to  which  was  brought 
no  scientific  thought  or  skill.  The  idea  of  equipping  special 
institutions  for  the  education  of  the  rural  youth  in  the  best  and 
most  scientific  methods  of  farming  was  not  dreamed  of.2  Now- 
adays the  farmer  ought  to  be  and  often  is  an  active  scientific 
observer,  working  in  co-operation  with  the  State  in  the  solution 
of  vast  and  important  problems.  Technical  education  itself, 


1  See  also  Fitch,  J.  G.,  Lectures  on  Teaching,  Chapter  XIV. 

2  There  has  been  a  growing  criticism  of  late  years   that  institutions 
whose  aim  has  been  to  educate  the  agricultural  classes  in  their  calling 
have  failed  to  do  this.     This  defect,  so  far  as  it  is  true,  is,  however,  not 
due  to  education,  but  to  imperfect  education  and  wrong  ideals.     It  may 
readily  be  admitted  that  some  young  men  have  become  puffed  up  with 
the  pride  of  imperfect  knowledge,  but  this  is  an  argument  for  making 
education  more  efficient  in  this  direction. 


THE    VALUE   OF  SCIENCE  IN  EDUCATION      21 

so  closely  connected  with  labor  as  it  is,  owes  to  the  sci- 
ences its  recognition  as  part  of  a  training  in  real  culture. 
"...  The  laboratory  sciences  .  .  .  have  justified  the  educa- 
tional value  of  the  methods  of  the  gymnasium  and  the  work- 
shop." They,  "by  analogy  as  well  as  by  physiology,  have 
shown  the  educational  merits  of  physical  culture,  manual 
training,  and  general  handicraft ;  .  .  .  have  demonstrated 
for  all  time  that  there  are  efficient  instruments  in  the  educa- 
tional workshop  other  than  the  printed  page  and  the  voice  of 
the  teacher,  other  convenient  and  important  avenues  to  the 
brain  than  the  optic  and  auditory  nerves,  along  which  the 
teacher  may  work."1  Biological  science,  as  evidenced  by  our 
illustration,  is  to  a  great  extent  responsible  for  this  change. 

The  time  when  the  sniff  of  superiority  of  the  city-bred  per- 
son at  the  mention  of  the  "  hayseed  "  will  be  replaced  by  a  look 
of  thoughtful  appreciation  of  the  dignity  of  the  farmer's  work 
will  come  when  biological  science,  as  given  to  the  public 
schools,  will  have  its  proper  informational  content,  and  is  taught 
so  as  to  impress  the  mind  with  a  due  appreciation  of  the  real 
and  fundamental  character  of  the  intellectual  task  before  the 
farmer.2 

Lastly,  we  find  that  biology  has  before  it  a  great  part  in  the 
solution  of  the  most  profound  problems  concerning  the  moral 
and  physical  well-being  of  the  race  —  that  involved 
in  the  relation  of  the  sexes.  This  problem,  it  has 
well  been  said,  taxes  all  the  wisdom  of  the  preacher,  jurist,  and 
physician,  and  we  may  venture  to  assert  that  none  of  these  can 
compass  the  ends  in  view  without  the  help  of  the  well-trained 
and  high-souled  teacher  of  biology.  It  is  quite  unnecessary  to 
recount  in  this  connection  the  evils  which  every  intelligent  man 
and  woman  knows  to  arise  from  the  moral  distortion  incident 
to  the  warping  01"  the  sexual  nature  by  artificial  and  immoral 
conditions. 


1  Sedgwick,  '93,  p.  245. 

2  See  Annual  Report,  United  States  Department  Agriculture.     1901, 


22  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

It  is  patent  to  the  thinking  mind  that  every  stratum  of  society 
is  affected  by  these  evils,  and  it  is  keeping  very  far  within  the 
limits  of  truth  to  say  that  not  only  the  physical  and  moral  wel- 
fare of  the  individual  but  the  very  foundations  of  society  and 
the  integrity  of  nations  may  be  destroyed  by  a  moral  pestilence 
of  this  kind. 

If  we  grant  this  to  be  true  —  as  those  cognizant  of  the  facts 
will  readily  do  —  what  is  more  evident  than  that  the  way  to 
cure  the  evil  is  by  the  demolition  of  ignorance  and  by  putting 
truth  in  its  place?  In  this  matter  as  in  others  formal  educa- 
tion must  be  made  to  supplement  home  training,  and  when  such 
is  absent  —  and  perhaps  far  more  frequently  than  not  it  is  —  to 
take  its  place. 

We  must  not  be  understood  to  advocate  a  sort  of  preaching 
or  moralizing  method  in  which  the  chief  method  of  promulgat- 
ing the  good  is  by  the  description  of  evil.  Education  should 
by  this  time  have  seen  the  futility  of  attempting  to  increase 
morality  in  this  way.  Positive  ethics  have  little  enough  effect 
on  morals  ;  nothing  good  can  be  said  of  negative  ethics.  But 
we  do  mean  to  assert  unequivocally  that  the  unhealthful  condi- 
tions above  referred  to  can  be  removed  by  the  bringing  to  the 
young  mind  clean,  accurate  knowledge  of  the  essential  facts  of 
physiology  and  of  reproduction,  through  the  agency  of  a  skilful 
teacher  of  biology.  Thus  right  habits  of  thought  will  be  started 
at  the  time  when  this  is  easiest,  and  at  least  the  youth  will  have 
begun  to  tread  the  right  path  which  leads  to  purity  of  life. 
James's  remarks  concerning  habits  are  just  as  pertinent  here  as 
elsewhere  — "  Education  is  for  behavior,  and  habits  are  the 
stuff  of  which  behavior  consists."1 

This  knowledge  to  be  the  most  useful  must  come  in  its 
natural  place  in  a  course  in  biology,  and  every  appearance  of 
unusual  effort  to  come  at  or  to  avoid  the  subject  must  be 
avoided. 

We  desire  to  lay  stress  on  this  point,  for  if  a  teacher  be  sus- 

1  James,  W.,  Talks  to  Teachers,  p.  66. 


THE    VALUE   OF  SCIENCE  IN  EDUCATION     23 

pected  of  unnaturalness,  or  of  any  but  the  most  transparently 
honest  of  motives,  his  work  is  undone.  The  information  re- 
ceived must  be  in  such  form  and  proportion  that  it  may  appear 
to  be  what  it  really  is  —  a  part  of  biological  knowledge  to  be 
treated  as  openly  as  any  other  part,  without  offence  to  good 
judgment. 

We  shall  attempt  further  on  to  show  that  an  introduction  to 
an  essential  knowledge  of  generative  processes  may  most  appro- 
priately and  effectively  be  made  in  a  course  in  botany. 

Biology,  then,  has  a  special  humanistic  value,  by  virtue  of  its 
content  of  information,  which  is  necessary  to  an  intelligent, 
well-balanced,  and  clean  man,  capable  of  appreciating  the  work 
of  the  race  and  the  mutual  debt  of  man  to  man,  and  capable 
also  of  high  moral  living.  This  is  the  stuff  of  which  good 
citizenship  is  made. 

In  the  foregoing  paragraphs  we  have  endeavored  to  present 

in  a  general  form  an  argument  for  the  use  of  biol- 

.         ,         .  rin.          •  ,.  •     j          Summary, 

ogy  in  education.      1  he  points  are  summarized  as 

follows : 

In  life  we  are  constantly  engaged  in  making  efforts  to  accom- 
plish ends.  These  efforts  may  be  undirected  and  unintelligent, 
or  they  may  be  under  direction ;  and  intelligent  formal  educa- 
tion has  for  its  purpose  the  control  and  the  direction  of  effort 
toward  ideals  which  experience  has  taught  us  to  be  worth  our 
effort.  With  better  control  of  effort  comes  better  judgment, 
and  this  reacts  on  the  individual,  rendering  subsequent  action 
still  more  direct  and  efficacious.  Our  task  is  to  point  out  that 
biology  may  contribute  to  these  ends  in  education.  It  is 
pointed  out  that  the  method  of  thought  is  common  to  all 
science ;  therefore,  that  the  special  value  of  biology  in  educa- 
tion must  be  indicated  chiefly  by  the  nature  of  the  material 
with  which  it  deals. 

The  subjects  of  education  are  concerned  with  two  classes  of 
realities,  —  feelings  and  things,  —  and  use  respectively  symbols 
and  objects.  The  study  of  biology,  because  it  is  a  study  with 
objective  realities,  tends  to  develop  the  disinterested  judgment, 


24  THE    TEACHING    OF  BOTANY 

to  teach  the  individual  how  to  adjust  himself  to  his  surroundings, 
and  to  raise  the  ideals  of  life. 

Biology  has  certain  special  values  in  education.  First,  it  has 
been  argued  that  biology  has  a  special  value  in  its  usefulness  in 
multiplying  the  interests  of  the  mind,  thus  furnishing  sources  of 
pleasure  which  are  deep  and  lasting  and  which  produce  no  bad 
effects.  They  are  such  as  are  within  the  reach  of  all.  We 
have  especially  emphasized  the  importance  of  the  development 
of  the  aesthetic  side  of  life  as  making  for  contentment  and 
pleasure. 

Secondly,  we  have  shown  that  biology  has  a  special  value  as 
discipline.  It  is  a  complex  and  therefore  a  difficult  study,  and 
calls  for  a  large  degree  of  caution  in  its  method  of  thought. 
In  this  it  resembles  real  life  more  nearly  than  the  other 
natural  sciences,  and  has  an  educational  value  indicated  by  its 
similarity  thereto. 

Thirdly,  it  has  a  humanistic  value,  measured  by  the  amount 
and  value  of  the  information  it  brings.  This  information  con- 
cerns various  phases  of  human  life  as  they  have  been  affected 
by  the  application  of  biological  science.  We  have  cited  the 
knowledge  of  the  nature  of  many  diseases,  the  field  of  agricul- 
ture and  of  labor,  and  the  profoundly  important  matter  of  the 
relation  of  the  sexes  as  being  matters  concerning  which  biology 
brings  most  valuable  information,  and  so  makes  for  a  saner  and 
more  normal  view  of  life. 


CHAPTER   II 

NATURE      STUDY 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Bailey,  L.  H.  Botany :  an  Elementary  Text-Book.  Paragraphs  for 
the  Teacher.  New  York,  The  MacMillan  Co.  1900. 

Bailey,  L.  H.  The  Nature  Study  Idea.  New  York,  Doubleday, 
Page  &  Co.  1903. 

Harris,  W.  T.  The  Study  of  Natural  Science  :  its  Uses  and  Dangers. 
EDUCATION,  10:  277.  January,  1890. 

Harris,  W.  T.  Horace  Mann.  EDUCATIONAL  REVIEW,  12:  104. 
September,  1896. 

Henkle,  W.  D.     Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  p.  59.     1870. 

Hinsdale,  B.  A.  Horace  Mann  and  the  Common  School  Revival 
in  the  United  States.  New  York,  Charles  Scribner's  Sons.  1898. 

Hodge,  C.  F.     Nature  Study  and  Life.     Boston,  Ginn  &  Co.     1902. 

Huxley,  T.  H.  Science  and  Education.  Collected  Essays.  Vol. 
III.  New  York,  D.  Appieton  &  Co.  1898. 

Huxley,  L.  Life  and  Letters  of  Thomas  Henry  Huxley.  New 
York,  D.  Appieton  &  Co.  1901. 

Huxley,  T.  H.     Method  and  Results.     Collected  Essays.     Vol.  I. 

Hyslop,  J.  H.  Elements  of  Logic :  Theoretical  and  Practical.  New 
York,  Charles  Scribners'  Sons.  1892. 

James,  W.  Talks  to  Teachers  on  Psychology,  and  to  Students  on 
Some  of  Life's  Ideals.  New  York,  H.  Holt  &  Co.  1900. 

Jordan,  D.  S.  Nature  Study  and  Moral  Culture.  Proc.  N.  E.  A., 
p.  130.  1896. 

Lathrop,  Delia  A.  Object  Lessons :  their  Value  and  Place  in 
Education.  Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  p.  49.  1870. 

Lloyd,  F.  E.  Aims  of  Nature  Study.  TEACHERS  COLLEGE  RECORD, 
-X :  No.  2.  March,  1900. 

Lloyd,  F.  E.  Plant  Ecology  for  the  Elementary  School.  NEW 
YORK  TEACHERS'  MONOGRAPHS,  4:  81-89.  March,  1902. 

Pearson,  Karl.    Grammar  of  Science.    London,  A.  &  C.  Black.    1900. 

Sedgwick,  Wm.  T.  Educational  Value  of  the  Method  of  Science. 
EDUCATIONAL  REVIEW,  5  :  243.  March,  1893. 

Soule,  C.  G.  Nature  Study  in  the  Schools.  OUTLOOK,  p.  224. 
27  January,  1900. 


26  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

de  Vries,  Hugo.  The  Origin  of  Species  by  Mutation.  SCIENCE,  II., 
15:  721.  9  May  1902. 

Weismann,  August.  On  Germinal  Selection  (1895).  Chicago. 
The  Open  Court  Publishing  Co.  1896. 

Woodward,  C.  M.  The  Change  of  Front  in  Education.  SCIENCE, 
II.,  14:  474.  27  September,  1901. 

Article,  Nature  Study.     NEW  INTERNATIONAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

What  is  Nature  Study?    SCIENCE,  II.,  16:  910.     5  December,  1902. 

WE  have  in  the  foregoing  chapter  endeavored  to  show  what 
we  hold  to  be  the  general  value  of  science  and  what  the  special 
value  of  biology  in  education.  It  has  been  necessary  in  so 
doing  to  confine  discussion  to  broad  considerations,  and  we 
have  reserved  a  more  special  treatment  of  certain  points  for  the 
present  chapter  and  for  those  dealing  with  botany  and  zoology 
in  the  secondary  schools.  We  have  now  before  us  the  task 
of  presenting  to  the  student  the  problem  involved  in  the  rela- 
tion of  science  to  elementary  education,  commonly  considered 
under  the  title  of  nature  study.  This  is  deemed  necessary,  be- 
cause, since  the  advent  of  nature  study  into  the  elementary  cur- 
riculum, the  amount  and  kind  of  work  done  in  the  high  school 
has  come  to  depend  in  an  intimate  way  upon  the  quality  of  the 
elementary  teaching.  And  the  same  ideals  apply  to  both  schools, 
—  poor  work  in  one  makes  difficult  the  attainment  of  proper 
standards  in  the  other.  The  principles,  therefore,  set  forth  in 
the  present  chapter,  while  directed  especially  toward  the  ele- 
mentary school,  are  to  be  recognized  as  a  part  of  our  general 
plea  for  the  acceptance  of  biology  in  education. 

It  will,  I  believe,  be  unnecessary  to  my  purpose  to  attempt 
a  formal  definition  of  what  is  meant,  or  is  supposed  to  be 
meant,  by  the  name  nature  study.  This  has  been  discussed 
by  a  number  of  able  students,1  with  a  more  or  less  satisfactory 
result.  Nor  is  it  worth  while  for  us  to  object  to  the  name, 
which  undoubtedly,  in  some  minds,  connotes  a  great  deal  that 


1  Bailey,  L.  H.,  The  Nature  Study  Idea.  What  is  meant  by  Nature 
Study?  Science,  II.,  16  :  910.  5  December,  1902.  Soule,  C.  G.,  Nature, 
Study  in  the  Schools. 


NATURE  STUDY  27 

savors  of  the  superficial  and  sentimental,  and  not  without 
reason.  Indeed,  we  have  heard  it  on  good  authority  that  in  some 
quarters,  while  the  value  of  elementary  science  is  not  brought 
into  question,  the  name  "  nature  study "  has  been  avoided, 
evidence  enough,  it  would  seem,  that  the  failures,  of  which  not 
a  little  has  been  said,  are  due,  not  to  the  matter  itself,  but  to 
the  fad-like  whimsicalities  of  very  enthusiastic  persons.  Enthu- 
siasm is  a  good  thing ;  but  if  we  have  to  reckon  with  such 
economic  forces  as  schoolboards  and  taxpayers,  whose  con- 
servatism is  extreme,  we  must  be  sure  that  it  does  not  over- 
reach our  knowledge  and  efficiency  as  teachers.  Nevertheless, 
nature  study  as  a  name,  as  surely  as  what  it  stands  for,  or  ought 
to,  has  come  to  stay  with  us,  and  it  embodies  a  group  of  ideas 
which  as  a  whole  are  distinctly  modern. 

Nor  shall  we  avoid  the  issue  arising  from  the  fact  that  the 
subject  has  fallen  into  a  certain  amount  of  disrepute  among 
educators.  That  imperfection  and  some  degree  of  failure 
should  attend  the  attempt  to  place  a  subject  so  complex  in  its 
materials  and  bearings  in  a  school  system  so  large  and  various 
in  its  development  as  that  of  America,  is  inevitable  and  to  be 
expected.  And  that  some  educators  should,  through  ignorance, 
or  through  conservatism  or  impatience,  be  unwilling  to  give  the 
matter  a  fair  trial  is  also  to  be  expected. 

It  will  serve  a  good  purpose  if  we  point  out  that  the  failures 
are  palpably  due,  not  to  the  inutility  of  the  subject,  but  to  the 
inferior  ability  of  teachers  —  who  in  the  majority  of  cases  may 
be  otherwise  efficient  —  to  handle  a  subject  which  calls  for 
unusual  preparation  and  insight.  What  has  been  expected  is 
that  teachers  who  are  not  only  ignorant  of  nature,  but  to  whom 
the  materials  are,  for  lack  of  training  and  of  the  proper  spirit, 
unwelcome  and  often  obnoxious,  should,  provided  with  a  meagre 
outline  and  a  poor  text,  give  a  successful  course  in  nature 
study.  The  wonder  is,  not  that  some  have  failed,  but  that  any 
have  succeeded.  To  pass  judgment,  therefore,  upon  the  results 
of  science  in  education  when  it  is  taught  by  untrained 
persons  as  a  temporary  expedient  or  as  an  experiment,  is 


28  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

obviously  unjust,  as  Huxley  in  defence  of  elementary  scientific 
education  years  ago  pointed  out.1 

In  view  of  this  explanation  of  the  partial  failure  of  nature 
study  to  meet  the  expectations  of  some  educators,  we  are  led 
to  present  in  what  follows  a  discussion  of  the  values  of  science, 
especially  of  the  study  of  organic  nature,  in  elementary  educa- 
tion, believing  that  a  clear  understanding  of  these  will  lead  to 
an  increased  demand  for  and  the  better  preparation  of  com- 
petent teachers  in  this  important  field  of  work. 

That  this  task  is  not  amiss  I  hold  because  I  believe  that  it  is 
educationally  a  great  wrong  to  fail  to  supply  children  during 
their  formal  education  with  opportunities  for  preserving  in 
themselves  their  love  of  nature  and  their  natural  desires  and 
powers  of  observation,  and  to  neglect  to  train  their  reasoning 
faculties.  It  is  of  great  interest  to  us  that  Horace  Mann  ex- 
perienced such  a  deprivation,  shared  by  many  others,  and  that 
he  has  recorded  his  complaint.  He  tells  us  "  that,  as  a  child,  he 
had  never  enjoyed  the  free  intercourse  with  nature  that  his 
ardent  mind  craved.  Speaking  of  himself  and  of  the  children 
with  whom  he  mingled,  he  says  that,  although  their  faculties 
were  growing  and  receptive,  they  were  taught  very  little ;  on 
the  other  hand,  much  obstruction  was  thrown  between  them 
and  nature's  teachings.  Their  eyes  were  never  trained  to  dis- 
tinguish forms  and  colors."  2 

One  of  Horace  Mann's  most  pertinent  criticisms  of  the 
school  methods  of  his  time  is  that  "  the  memory  was  the  only 
mental  faculty  especially  appealed  to  ;  the  most  comprehensive 
generalizations  were  given  to  the  children,  instead  of  the  facts 
upon  which  they  were  based  ;  all  ideas  that  did  not  come  from 
the  book  were  contraband."3  And  it  is  instructive  to  note  in 
connection  with  these  criticisms  of  school  methods  that  Mann 


1  Science  and  Education,  p.  167. 

2  Hinsdale,  B.  A.,  Horace  Mann  and  the  Common  School  Revival  in 
the  United  States,  p.  80. 

3  Hinsdale,  loc.  cit.t  p.  78. 


NATURE  STUDY  2Q 

emphatically  and  continually  upheld  the  doctrine  that  the  most 
important  idea  for  students  to  get  is  that  of  the  causal  relation. 
This  was  a  constant  educational  idea  of  his,  and  it  shows  that 
he  had  a  clear  insight  into  the  scientific  method  and  its  value 
for  education.  Perhaps  the  most  important  of  his  educational 
documents  in  its  spirit  and  appreciation  of  the  importance  of 
this  method  in  elementary  education  is  the  Ninth  Report  of 
the  Commissioner  of  Education,1  published  in  1845,  m  which  he 
commends  the  system  of  instruction  by  induction  instead  of 
deduction  and  the  importance  of  substituting  investigation  for 
memorizing. 

The  first  attempt  to  remedy  the  condition  of  public  education 
criticised  by  Horace  Mann  was  seen  in  the  "  object  lesson  " 
movement,  a  geographical  extension  in  practice  of  The  01)ject 
the  method  of  instruction  by  observation  2  of  that  Lesson' 
German  school  of  education  of  which  Comenius  was  the 
founder  and  Pestalozzi  the  later  world-renowned  interpreter 
and  spokesman.  It  is  beyond  my  intention  to  attempt  a  de- 
tailed historical  review  of  the  educational  reform  movement,  but 
it  will  serve  a  useful  purpose  to  examine  the  "  object  lesson  " 
as  a  means  of  education,  since  it  will  help  us  the  better  to  esti- 
mate the  importance  of  the  more  modern  development  of 
nature  study. 

What  the  object  lesson  was  and  what  educational  value  it 
was  claimed  to  possess  have  been  well  summarized  by  Miss 
Lathrop.8 

An  object  lesson,  according  to  Miss  Lathrop,  is  not  some- 
thing which  is  read  or  recited  by  the  teacher  to  her  pupils,  nor 
is  it  a  lecture  by  her.  Further,  it  is  not  something  which  is 
identical  with  the  "  objective  "  or  illustrative  teaching  which 
was  at  that  time  (YSyo)  under  discussion  nor  with  oral  in- 
struction. The  positive  contention  is  made  that,  in  such  a 


1  Harris,  W.  T.,  Educational  Review,  S.  '96. 

2  A  nschauungsu  nterrich  t. 

3  Lathrop,  Delia   A.,  Object    Lessons:   Their 'Value   and   Place   in 
Education.     Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1870,  p.  49. 


30  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

lesson  an  object  to  be  studied  must  be  present,  and  that  it  de- 
mands the  use  of  the  child's  senses,  and  the  exercise  must  be 
conversational  and  under  the  guidance  of  the  teacher.  Con- 
cerning the  value  of  the  work  the  claims  which  were  put  forth 
are  these :  ( i )  That  it  is  a  means  for  the  development  of  the 
powers  of  observation  and  judgment,  and  leads  the  mind  of 
the  children  into  new  fields  of  inquiry  and  so  discovers  new 
aptitudes ;  it  affords  an  opportunity  for  the  unification  of  the 
child's  knowledge  ;  (2)  it  prepares  for  and  supplements  books  ; 
(3)  it  cultivates  ease  and  exactness  of  expression,  and  (4)  it 
affords  variety  and  so  brings  rest. 

Perhaps  as  much  interest  attaches  to  Miss  Lathrop's  statement 
of  the  objections  which  were  directed  against  the  object  lesson 
at  the  time  when  she  wrote  the  paper  from  which  I  quote, 
since  they  have  been  many  times  repeated.  It  was  urged  by 
the  critics  of  the  object  lesson :  ( i )  that  there  was  not  time 
enough  in  the  curriculum  for  its  reception ;  (2)  that  it  made 
too  much  hard  work  for  the  teachers ;  (3)  that  the  lessons 
became  mechanical ;  (4)  that  the  bright  scholars  were  led  out 
while  the  duller  ones  were  constantly  left  farther  and  farther  be- 
hind ;  (5)  that  the  instruction  was  not  systematic,  and  (6)  that 
teachers  were  incompetent.  It  is  obvious  that  no  one  of 
these  objections  is  directed  against  the  value  of  the  work  itself, 
and  the  tacit  admission  that  it  has  a  definite  value  reduces  the 
objections  to  criticisms  which  are  to  be  removed  by  a  study  of 
relative  values  of  various  subjects  as  compared  with  science,  and 
by  planning  the  curriculum  and  the  mechanism  of  the  school 
in  accordance  ;  as  for  the  incoinpetency  of  teachers,  all  that 
may  be  said  is,  that  if  the  only  way  is  to  have  the  subject  taught 
by  them,  the  standard  of  preparation  should  be  raised  and 
incompetency  removed. 

From  this  brief  statement  concerning  the  value  of  the  object 
lesson  we  may  gather  the  following  conclusions.  While  the 
object  lesson  was  very  imperfect,  both  in  its  method  and  results, 
it  must  be  admitted  that  it  contained  the  central  principle  of  the 
method  of  nature  study  in  that  it  recognized  the  value  of 


NATURE  STUDY  31 

the  study  of  objective  realities  by  the  use  of  the  senses.  It 
recognized  also  the  importance  of  the  training  obtained  thereby 
in  observation,  and  to  some  degree  at  least  the  ethical  value  of 
such  study.  The  imperfection  of  its  method,  on  the  other  hand, 
which  stood  in  the  way  of  any  great  or  permanent  degree  of  use- 
fulness, lay  chiefly  in  the  incompetency  of  the  teacher  and  his 
failure  to  grasp  the  scientific  method,  in  the  consequent  indiffer- 
ence to  the  conditions  of  true  study  on  the  part  of  the  child 
in  that  the  provision  of  materials  was  scanty,  and  these  were 
heterogeneous  and  unrelated,  thus  throwing  object  study  into 
striking  contrast  to  the  nature  study  of  to-day,  which  includes 
in  addition  to  the  elements  of  the  biological  and  physical  sci- 
ences a  practical  training  in  the  elements  of  agriculture  and 
horticulture.  These,  it  is  reassuring  to  know,  can  be  made,  in 
spite  of  their  practical  worth,  the  basis  for  sound  elementary 
scientific  education. 

We  may  now  pass  on  to  consider  somewhat  fully  the  aims 
and  values  of  nature  study.  I  may  well  take  my  point  of  de- 
parture in  a  spirited  statement  of  Huxley,  since  it  The  Aim  of 
contains,  I  believe,  in  a  nutshell  the  whole  and  true  Education, 
conception  of  the  end  of  education.  "  I  take  it  that  the  whole 
object  of  education  is,  in  the  first  place,  to  train  the  faculties  of 
the  young  in  such  a  manner  as  to  give  their  possessors  the  best 
chance  of  being  happy  and  useful  in  their  generation  ;  and,  in 
the  second  place,  to  furnish  them  with  the  most  important  por- 
tions of  that  immense  capitalized  experience  of  the  human  race 
which  we  call  knowledge  of  various  kinds.  I  am  using  the 
term  knowledge  in  its  widest  possible  sense  ;  and  the  question 
is,  what  subjects  to  select  by  training  and  discipline  in  which 
the  object  I  have  just  defined  may  be  best  attained." l 

Let  us  now  examine  the  field  of  nature  study  to  see  in  de- 
tail in  what  way  we  may  expect  that  it  will  con-  nature  study 
tribute  toward  the  end  of  making  people  "happy  in Education, 
and  useful."  In  doing  this,  however,  the  discussion  is  of  ne- 


Huxley,  T.  H.,  Science  and  Education. 


32  THE   TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

cessity  confined  to  biological  nature  study,  but  in  so  doing 
we  shall  assume  that  what  is  said  may  be  applied,  with  due 
modification,  to  the  other  natural  sciences. 

The  study  of  nature  appeals  very  strongly  to  great  numbers 
of  people  through  their  normal  interests,  and  its  value  in  this 
regard  is  unquestioned.  It  gives  them  something 
terestin  to  think  about  and  to  do,  and  is  in  itself  so  varied 
a  resource  of  observation  and  pleasure  that  in  many 
cases  it  serves  as  an  outlet  for  interest  and  energy  remaining 
from  the  toil  of  life.  How  widespread  such  interest  is  may  be 
judged  from  the  numbers  of  clubs,  societies,  and  the  like,  among 
people  with  mutual  interests  in  nature,  and  the  same  thing  is 
shown  by  the  great  demand  for  books  about  nature  which 
the  market  does  not  fail  to  supply.  To  be  sure,  the  interest  of 
which  we  speak  is  in  many  instances  trivial,  and  may  be  in 
itself  little  better  than  the  collection  of  some  useless  stuff  like 
tobacco  tags,  but  we  should  go  far  astray  if  we  supposed  that 
the  value  of  it  was  indicated  by  this  alone.  The  important  fact 
is  that  interest  in  natural  objects  takes  people  away  from  the 
artificial  and  brings  them  into  contact  with  the  great  out-of- 
doors.  We  quote  a  passage  concerning  this  interest  from 
Hodge's  "  Nature  Study  and  Life  "  which  well  expresses  the 
value  of  such  interest.  Speaking  of  the  selection  of  topics  for  a 
nature-study  course,  he  says  :  "  Will  it  form  or  help  to  form  an 
important,  lifelong  interest,  —  an  interest  not  tech- 
nical or  superficial,  touching  life  only  on  the  surface 
here  and  there,  and  at  long  intervals,  but  one  that  lies  close  to 
the  heart,  to  the  home,  and  to  all  that  makes  life  worth  living? 
The  value  of  such  an  interest  is  inestimable.  It  may  add  a 
sparkle  to  the  eye,  elasticity  to  the  step,  and  a  glow  to  every 
heart-beat,  and  be  the  most  efficient  safeguard  against  idleness 
and  waste  of  time,  evil  and  temptation  of  every  sort."  —  "  To 
find  such  an  interest  in  some  worthy  nature-love  is  to  discover 
the  fountain  of  youth."  l 


1  Hodge,  C.  F.,  Nature  Study  and  Life,  p.  24. 


NATURE  STUDY  33 

It  thus  appeals  to  that  subtle  bond  of  sympathy  existing 
between  man  and  nature  ;  one,  however,  which  may  not  be 
reasoned  about,  but  which  we  know  tends  to  lead  us  into 
pleasant  paths  of  thought  and  action.1 

If  we  might  claim  for  nature  study  only  this,  we  should  have 
argument  enough  for  its  introduction  into  the  curriculum,  for 
this  interest  has  been  observed  repeatedly  to  react  upon  the 
whole  activity  of  the  child  by  supplying  concrete,  observable 
things  to  look  at,  to  handle,  and  to  experiment  with.  It  gives 
the  occasion  for  the  use  of  all  the  senses  and  of  the  reason  as 
well  ;  it  has  led  to  the  institution  of  outdoor  work  in  garden 
making,  the  collecting  of  various  objects,  and  similar  pursuits. 
This  has,  in  a  very  peculiar  sense,  appealed  to  the  whole  of  the 
child's  activity,  besides  reacting  on  the  school  life  in  a  healthful 
way  hygienically. 

We  should,  before  leaving  this  matter,  lay  stress  on  the  gen- 
eralized, innate  character  of  this  interest  in  nature.  It  makes 
little  odds  to  us  how  we  get  it,  so  that  we  recognize 


iMi  c  •- 

its  existence  in  children,  and  make  proper  use  of  eraiized  Char- 

it  in  their  education.     We  know  it  is  a  good  thing 
to  have,  and  we  know  that  many  people  lose  it  simply  because 
of  disuse,  because  the  school  did  not  give  them  a  fair  oppor- 
tunity.    Time  and  again,  it  is  the  burden  of  the  complaint  of 
many  people    that   their  youthful   interest  in  nature  did   not 
receive  nurture  at  the  proper  time.     Similarly,  a  normal  child's 
body  is  a  veritable  whirlwind  of  activity,  not  alone  in  the  use 
of  senses  and   muscles,  but  in    intellectual  inquiry  about  the 
things  about  them  which  they  appreciate  directly  by  means  of 
their  senses.2     And  it  is,  moreover,  a  distinct  edu-   Nonetoo 
cational    advantage    that    this   bodily   and    mental  Youne- 
activity  begins  so  early  that  even  in  the  first  grade,  scientific 
work,  accurate   so  far  as  it  goes,  may  be  done,  and  done  in 


t  valuable  discussion  of  the  point  here  alluded  to,  see 
Jarjres's  Essay,  p.  229.     1900. 

2  " .  .  .  there  is  no  limit  to  the  intellectual  craving  of  a  young  child." 
Huxley,  T.  H.,  Collected  Essays.     Vol.  III.,  p.  123. 

3 


34  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

such  fashion  that  every  bit  of  it  is  full  of  real  interest  to  the 
children. 

These  two  groups  of  activities  — bodily  and  mental  —  of  the 
child  are  in  the  schoolroom  apparently  at  war  with  each  other, 
Using  the  an(^  around  the  idea  that  this  antagonism  is  neces- 
J^y^tiv-  sary  much  folderol  pedantry  has  grown  up.  The 
Child.  advent  of  hygienic  conceptions  and  the  introduction 

of  physical  exercise  is  in  recognition  of  the  evil  and  an  attempt 
to .  educate  properly  both  sides  of  the  child.  Nature  study 
makes  this  possible,  because  it  uses  both  mental  and  bodily 
activities.  It  not  only  makes  necessary  the  use  of  the  senses 
in  observation  and  of  the  -reason,  with  all  that  word  implies, 
but  in  its  method  it  can  be  used  for  the  exercise  of  the  muscles 
in  an  unconscious  way,  which  is  the  more  productive  of  good 
because  used  in  connection  with  the  play  of  mental  interests. 
Nature  study,  therefore,  comes  as  a  subject  for  the  school  with 
this  special  advantage,  shared  in  part  by  manual  training,  and 
its  effect  for  good  upon  education  is  not  easily  overestimated. 

We  have  spoken  above  of  the  value  of  nature  study  as  foster- 
ing an  interest  in  and  sympathy  with  nature  which  we  regard  as 
Natural  In-  innate ;  and  we  have  regarded  an  interest  which 
pSto?De-  appears  trifling  when  superficially  considered  to 
parture.  ^g  be^er  than  none.  But  it  is  the  special  function 
of  education  to  use  such  interest  as  a  point  of  departure,  and 
to  build  it  up  into  a  more  thoughtful,  living  interest,  which  will 
lead  the  individual  to  a  fuller  emotional  and  rational  life.  We 
place  the  word  "  emotional  "  first  for  a  reason  which  we  believe 
sound,  namely,  because  the  emotions  or  feelings  are  springs  of 
conduct,  and  determine  in  a  large  measure  our  attitude  toward 
and  our  action  in  the  world  about  us.  Even  the  attitude 
Emotions  and  toward  the  use  of  the  reason  which  is  properly 
the  Reason.  regarded  as  the  characteristic  of  a  scientific  thinker 
(by  which  we  mean  not  alone  those  dealing  with  the  sciences 
proper,  but  all  who  can  and  do  use  the  scientific  method  of 
thought)  is  the  outcome  of  an  emotional  conception  of  the 
value  of  reason.  We  believe  that  to  think  properly  is  good,  to 


NATURE  STUDY  35 

think  slovenly  is  bad.  The  former  will  lead  us  aright,  the  latter 
will  not.  There  are  records  of  heroism  facing  failure  upon 
failure,  to  emerge  at  last  victorious  from  a  fight  in  which  reason 
was  the  only  weapon  and  faith  the  sustaining  power,  impalpable 
but  real. 

A  phase  of  this  interest  in  nature  to  which  it  is  related  in  a 
very  subtle  and  complex  way  is  the  interpretation  of  natural 

objects  as  beautiful.     This  in  many  cases  furnishes 
i          •  •  i  •     i       i  i          IT  i    T    Interpreta- 

the  primary  motive,  and  it  should  not  be  disregarded   tionoi  Nature 

in  education.  Extension  of  knowledge  which  is 
thus  had  will  supply  a  wider  and  more  varied  field  for  the  play 
of  the  aesthetic  sensibilities,  and  as  its  result  the  person  should 
have  a  keener  and  fuller  appreciation  of  nature.  More  knowl- 
edge and  a  stronger  creative  imagination  should  go  hand  in 
hand ;  and  we  must  look,  at  no  very  distant  date  it  is  to  be 
hoped,  for  a  more  truly  spiritual  and  at  the  same  time  a  more 
virile  conception  of  the  meaning  of  beauty  and  truth,  which 
shall  bring  each  into  harmony  with  the  other.1  I  once  had  an 
experience  which  illustrates  my  meaning.  A  lady  who  was 
wearing  a  pin  in  which  the  stone  was  a  piece  of  polished  "satin 
spar "  from  Niagara  was  under  the  impression  that  it  was 
"  petrified  foam."  Upon  being  told  the  real  nature  of  the 
stone,  she  declared  that  the  object  had  lost  its  value  and  beauty 
for  her,  and  that  she  wished  she  had  not  been  told ! 2 

To  teach  a  better  interpretation  of  nature,  for  which  educa- 
tion as  a  whole  is  striving,  is  one  aim  of  nature  study,  for  it  is 
to  science  that  we  look  for  the  training  which  shall  attain  this 
result.  "  The  scientific  interpretation  of  phenomena,  the  scien- 
tific account  of  the  universe,  is.  therefore,  the  only  one  which 
can  permanently  satisfy  the  aesthetic  judgment,  for  it  is  the  only 
one  which  can  never  be  entirely  contradicted  by  our  observa- 
tion andexperience.  It  is  necessary  to  strongly  emphasize  this 

1  Pearson,  Karl,  The  Grammar  of  Science,  p.  35.  The  writings  of 
such  authors  as  Thoreau,  White,  and  Bolles,  exemplify  a  legitimate 
aesthetic  interpretation  of  nature. 

2  Read  in  Huxley's  Life  and  Letters,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  143,  144- 


36.  THE   TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

side  of  science,  for  we  are  frequently  told  that  the  growth  of 
science  is  destroying  the  beauty  and  poetry  of  life.  It  is 
undoubtedly  rendering  many  of  the  old  interpretations  of 
life  meaningless,  because  it  demonstrates  that  they  are  false  to 
the  facts  which  they  profess  to  describe.  It  does  not  follow 
from  this,  however,  that  the  aesthetic  and  scientific  judgments 
are  opposed ;  the  fact  is,  that  with  the  growth  of  our  scientific 
knowledge  the  basis  of  the  aesthetic  judgment  is  changing  and 
must  change.  There  is  more  real  beauty  in  what  science  has 
to  tell  us  of  the  chemistry  of  a  distant  star,  or  in  the  life  history 
of  a  protozoon,  than  in  any  cosmogony  produced  by  the  creative 
imagination  of  a  pre-scientific  age.  By  '  more  real  beauty  '  we 
are  to  understand  that  the  aesthetic  judgment  will  find  more 
satisfaction,  more  permanent  delight,  in  the  former  than  in  the 
latter.  It  is  this  continual  gratification  of  the  aesthetic  judg- 
ment which  is  one  of  the  chief  delights  of  the  pursuit  of  pure 
science." * 

To  illustrate  this  contention  we  may  point  out  that  scientific 
knowledge  does  not  of  necessity  trammel  the  aesthetic  judg- 
ment, for  a  well-balanced  mind  certainly  can  and  does  actually 
divest  itself  during  the  enjoyment  of  aesthetic  sensations  of  the 
consideration  of  the  machinery  which  produces  them.  At  the 
same  time  I  am  aware  of  exceptions  in  the  persons  of  highly 
gifted  scientific  men  who  have  lost  their  power  of  enjoying 
nature,  but  I  believe  that  these  do  not  indicate  any  general 
tendency.  On  the  other  hand,  I  have  received  testimony  to 
the  effect  that  the  enjoyment  of  nature  is  not  experienced  until 
something  of  its  working  is  understood,  a  condition  which  I 
believe  is  far  more  usual  and  normal. 

In  the  immediately  foregoing  paragraphs  I  have  taken  the 
ground  that  the  increase  of  real  knowledge  must  result  in  a 
refinement  of  the  emotional  life,  and  I  have  spoken  of  the  re- 
lation of  the  emotions  to  the  reason,  and  in  the  interpretation 
of  nature  as  beautiful.  There  is  still  another  phase  of  the  emo- 


Pearson,  K.,  Grammar  of  Science,  p.  35. 


NATURE  STUDY  37 

tional  attitude  which  remains  to  be  especially  mentioned,  in  the 
cultivation  of  which  we  may  look  for  the  development  of  the 
spiritual  aspect  of  life  which  expresses  itself  in  morality. 

I  attempt  to  use  the  word  "  spiritual"  advisedly,  but  the 
word  means  such  different  things,  frequently  unessential,  to 
different  people  that  I  shall  endeavor  to  make  science  and 
clear  my  meaning.  It  is  often  said  that  education  Cnaracter' 
aims  at  the  formation  of  character  and  any  system  of  education, 
nay,  any  factor  in  education  which  does  not  have  this  for  its 
purpose  is  to  that  degree  useless.  The  character,  then,  is  that 
imponderable  but  real  sum  total  of  ideal  and  action  which 
makes  a  man  recognizable  as  good  or  bad,  and  therefore  as  a 
desirable  or  undesirable  member  of  society.  Inasmuch,  how- 
ever, as  the  ideal  or  our  emotional  attitude  determines  largely 
the  nature  of  our  conscious  actions,  and,  indeed,  our  uncon- 
scious actions  also,  to  the  extent  that  the  latter  grow  by  habit 
into  the  former,  it  follows  that  the  emotional  life,  in  order  that  it 
be  for  our  good,  must  become  more  and  more  refined,  and 
this  refinement  of  emotional  life  is  spiritualization.  The  ideal 
then  becomes  the  spiritual  when  it  is  good  and  tends  to  pro- 
duce good  actions  or  moral  living.  Any  process  in  education 
which,  by  supplying  good  ideals  of  any  kind,  be  it  of  reason,  or 
beauty,  or  of  ethics,  will  help  to  spiritualize. 

I  take  issue  with  Mr.  Harris  when  he  says,  "  While,  therefore, 
we  must  acknowledge  the  importance  of  science  study  in  the 
elementary  schools,  we  must  not  ignore  its  non-spiritualizing 
tendency  due  to  exaggerating  the  importance  of  inventorying 
external  facts.  Its  enthusiasm  for  things  and  events  in  time 
and  space  makes  it  undervalue  facts  of  introspection  which 
are  more  fundamental  than  facts  of  external  observation."1 
According  to  Mr.  Harris,  scientific  instruction  is  justified  by  its 
significance  as  a  factor  in  civilization  ;  but  the  methods  of 
science  study  do  not  have  a  spiritualizing  tendency. 

If  by  the  "  spiritual  "  Mr.   Harris  means  that  realm  of  the 


Harris,  W.  T.,  1890,  p.  287. 


38  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

ideal  and  mystical  which  most  persons  accept  as  a  norm  of 
living  without  so  much  as  a  doubt  or  question,  then,  to  be  sure, 
we  must  admit  the  truth  of  his  statement.  Science  does  lead  to 
doubt  and  to  questioning ;  this  we  at  once  and  gladly  admit. 
But  we  declare,  also,  that  introspective  processes  unless  carried 
on  in  scientific  fashion  are  no  more  suited  to  determining  what 
the  truth  is  than  the  examination  of  objective  things.  Science 
does  not  recognize  the  spiritual  which  either  does  not  or  is 
reluctant  to  examine  for  fear  of  uncomfortable  disclosures. 
The  truly  spiritual  is  that  man  who,  knowing,  so  far  as  in  him 
lies,  the  true  and  the  false,  sticks  to  the  course  ordered  by  the 
former,  with  the  sublime  faith  that  right  cannot  beget  wrong, 
and  who  can  say  with  the  master  of  Balliol  that  the  great  soul 
of  the  world  is  just. 

A  part  of  this  spiritualization  is  due  to  the  cultivation  of  intel- 
lectual honesty,  of  which  we  shall  try  to  get  a  clear  conception. 
Intellectual  ^e  cannot  wholly  separate  it  from  what  for  the 
Honesty.  sake  of  contrast  we  may  call  common  honesty,  but 
it  sets  off  against  the  latter  by  its  quality  of  extension  to  the 
subjective  which  makes  it,  par  excellence,  an  honesty  for  the 
sake  of  the  right  rather  than  for  policy's  sake.  We  should  be 
far  from  asserting  that  common  honesty  is  merely  a  matter  of 
policy,  and  that  its  sin  is  in  being  found  out.  What  we  do  say 
is  that  a  common  phenomenon  is  the  mind  which,  while 
strictly  honest  in  the  practical  transactions  of  life,  is  distinctly 
inhonest  (to  avoid  the  implication  of  the  ordinary  form,  dis- 
honest) in  intellectual  affairs.  This  is  the  style  of  mind  which, 
rather  than  looking  at  evidence  squarely  in  the  face,  and  with 
the  will  to  act  in  consonance  with  knowledge,  is  ready  to  follow 
the  leadings  of  authority  without  examination  of  its  basis  ;  which, 
instead  of  looking  for  real  content  of  truth,  is  easily  cheated  by 
"  luxuriance  of  fiction  "  or,  what  is  still  worse,  the  willingness  to 
indulge  in  it.  There  are  timid  minds  who  will  see  a  fearsome 
teaching  of  doubt  in  these  lines,  but  we  shall  have  to  pass  such 
by  with  the  comment  that  the  fear  which  prevents  people  from 
using  their  mental  powers  is  a  subjective  business  which  is  as 


NATURE  STUDY  39 

much  of  a  bugaboo  as  a  ghost  with  a  turnip  lantern  for  a  head. 
The  fear  may  be  real  enough,  but  its  cause  needs  only  to  be 
examined  honestly  to  discover  its  real  character. 

Since  our  purpose  is  to  point  out  the  fact  of  intellectual 
honesty,  and  to  urge  it  as  an  ideal  rather  than  to  analyze  it, 
we  cannot  do  better  than  to  present  to  the  reader  some  power- 
ful passages  which,  in  exposing  the  attitude  of  master  minds  to 
view,  serve  as  inspiriting  examples  of  heroism  in  the  realm  of 
thought.  It  is  to  be  earnestly  recommended  to  those  who  are 
preparing  for  the  profession  of  teaching  that  they  read  and 
reflect  upon  the  works  of  the  authors  who  are  quoted. 

Concerning  Descartes,  Huxley l  says :  "  There  is  a  path 
that  leads  to  truth  so  surely  that  any  one  who  will  follow  it 
must  needs  reach  the  goal,  whether  his  capacity  be  great  or 
small.  And  there  is  one  guiding  rule  by  which  a  man  may 
always  find  this  path,  and  keep  himself  from  straying  when  he 
has  found  it.  This  golden  rule  is  —  give  unqualified  assent  to 
no  propositions  but  those  the  truth  of  which  is  so  clear  and 
distinct  that  they  cannot  be  doubted."  "  Descartes  "  obeyed 
"  this  command  deliberately  ;  and,  as  a  matter  of  religious  duty, 
stripped  off  all  his  beliefs  and  reduced  himself  to  a  state  of  in- 
tellectual nakedness,  until  such  time  as  he  could  satisfy  himself 
which  were  fit  to  be  worn.  He  thought  a  bare  skin  healthier 
than  the  most  respectable  and  well-cut  clothing  of  what  might, 
possibly,  be  mere  shoddy."  2  He  "  prepared  to  go  on  living 
while  he  doubted,"  "he  would  not  lie  to  himself — would  under 
no  penalties  say  '  I  am  sure '  of  that  of  which  he  was  not 
sure." 8 

Huxley,  in  that  remarkable  letter  addressed  to  Kingsley, 
further  says,  "Sit  down  before  fact  as  a  little  child,  be  prepared 
to  give  up  every  preconceived  notion,  follow  humbly  wherever 
and  to  whatever  abysses  nature  leads,  or  you  shall  learn  noth- 


1  On  Descartes's  Discourse  Touching  the  Method  of  Using  One's 
Reason  Rightly,  and  of  Seeking  Scientific  Truth  (1870).     Coll.  Essays, 
Vol.  I. 

2  Loc.  cit.  8  Loc.  cit. 


40  THE    TEACHING    OF  BOTANY 

ing.  I  have  only  begun  to  learn  content  and  peace  of  mind 
since  I  have  resolved  at  all  risks  to  do  this." 1 

"  But  for  this  to  be  clear  we  must  bear  in  mind  what  almost 
all  forget,  that  the  rewards  of  life  are  contingent  upon  obedience 
to  the  whole  law  —  physical  as  well  as  moral  —  and  that  moral 
obedience  will  not  atone  for  physical  sin,  or  vice  versa"  2 

Intellectual  honesty,  therefore,  which  is  an  outgrowth  of  ex- 
perience with  facts,  begets  faith  in  the  order  of  nature  and  in 
the  workings  of  its  laws  and  the  will  to  order  one's  life  in 
accord  with  them.  It  is  in  this  that  we  see  the  relation  of  the 
study  of  nature  to  the  spiritual  development  of  the  man. 

Another  side  of  the  character  which  can,  by  the  proper 
means  in  nature  study,  be  reached  effectively,  is  that  which 
Respect  for  concerns  itself  with  the  welfare  of  others,  and  is  to 
others.  be  found  in  respect  for  the  rights  and  properties  of 

others,  and  in  the  willing  observance  of  laws  which  are  made 
for  the  protection  of  public  and  private  health,  property,  and 
pleasure.  Such  laws,  while  in  a  measure  in  themselves  educa- 
tive, as  has  on  a  previous  page  been  pointed  out,  depend  for 
their  efficacy  upon  general  recognition  of  their  need  and 
value.  By  bringing  the  individual  to  a  knowledge  of  the  facts 
and  relations  upon  which  such  laws  are  based,  and  by  training 
in  the  method  by  which  they  are  obtained,  is  the  only  sure  way 
to  get  the  necessary  recognition. 

We  may  look  for  real  progress  in  public  cleanliness,  and  the 
consequent  reduction  of  zymotic  disease,  when  the  knowledge  of 
its  nature  is  common  knowledge  ;  for  without  such  knowledge, 
precept  and  law  are  of  little  avail.  The  same  is  true  of  regu- 
lations applying  to  insect  pests,  noxious  weeds,  and  every  kind  of 
troublesome  thing  inimical  to  health  and  comfort.  Some  real 
knowledge  of  the  amount  of  care,  time,  patience,  and  money, 
and  of  the  chance  for  success  or  failure  of  raising  a  shrub  or 
tree  will  do  more  in  getting  a  boy  to  voluntarily  respect  public 

1  Huxley,  Leonard,  Life  and  Letters  of  Thomas  Henry  Huxley.     Vol. 
I.,  p.  231. 

2  Loc.  cit.,  p.  236. 


NATURE  STUDY  41 

parks  than  all  the  police  which  a  city  can  afford  to  place  in 
watch  over  it ;  for  the  small  boy  knows  no  authority  but  his  own 
pleasure,  and  respect  must  be  voluntary.  If  the  boys  of  a 
neighborhood  make  the  raising  of  peaches  and  grapes  impos- 
sible, a  better  remedy  than  the  jail  would  be  to  start  them 
raising  peaches  and  grapes  of  their  own.1  A  study  of  the  de- 
tailed laws  for  the  amelioration  of  the  conditions  of  the  region 
in  which  a  child  lives  is  just  as  pertinent  to  his  efficient  educa- 
tion as  that  of  the  principles  upon  which  his  government  is 
based. 

In  the  preceding  discussion  we  have  frequently  made  use  of 
such  expressions  as  "real  knowledge,"  "  method  of  thought," 
"  making  knowledge  a  real  experience,"  and  the  like,  and  it 
shall  be  our  aim  now  to  make  clear  what  is  meant. 

Any  science  as  an  educational  factor  has  two  parts,  information 
and  method  ;  or  we  may  put  it :   ( i )  facts  and  relations  deter- 
mined with  more  or  less  probability  to  be  true  ;  (2) 

...       ...  Method  of 

the  processes  of  acquisition  which  will  enable  us  to   Study  and 
,.  T    .      Content. 

discover,  arrange,  and  reason  about  new  facts.     It  is 

obviously  the  business  of  a  teacher  of  any  subject,  such  as 
nature  study,  to  determine  what  there  is  in  the  way  of  ascer- 
tained knowledge  content  which  students  ought  to  know  about; 
and  it  is  equally  the  teacher's  business  to  understand  the 
method  of  its  acquisition,  and  also  how  these  methods  have 
been  and  are  now  used. 

But  the  teacher  has  a  further  task,  which  is  more  difficult  and 
also  more  important.  It  is  to  learn  how  to  impart  information 

in  such  a  manner  that  it  shall  not  take  the  form  of  a 

How  to  im- 
mere   multiplication   table ;   for   it  is  quite  certain   part  Informa- 

that  when  nature  study,  for  example,  becomes  on 
its  informational  side  a  memory  exercise,  it  will  defeat  its  own 
ends.     It  will  become  slavish,  a  dry  task  which  will  repel  the 
pupil.     This  is  a  danger  which  is  attendant  upon  the  use  of 
books,  in  addition  to  the  tendency  which  is  always  present  to 


.  l  Hodge,  C.  F.,  Nature  Study  and  Life,  p.  29. 


42  THE   TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

cloud  the  vision  with  an  unhealthful  atmosphere  of  authority. 
If,  then,  we  regard  our  inherited  information  as  so  much  knowl- 
edge, the  teacher's  problem  is  to  make  it  real  to  each  indi- 
vidual, and  this  may  be  done  only  by  giving  it  a  suitable 
association  in  the  mind.  Such  associations  must  originally  be 
pleasurable  ;  there  must  be  the  feeling  of  doing  something  and 
getting  something  worth  while.  A  simple  illustration  is  this. 
If  it  is  desired  that  children  should  learn  that  some  plant 
embryos  have  two  seed  leaves,  this  may  be  done  by  the  copy- 
book method.  The  teacher  might  write  down  on  the  black- 
board, "  Plants  are  divided  into  two  groups,"  etc.,  and  the 
poor  little  folks  commanded  to  write  it  out  ten  times.  They 
would  then  probably  have  it  "  graven  on  the  tablets  of  their 
memory."  Or  the  children  might  be  asked  to  collect  some 
flower  and  vegetable  seeds,  and  an  excursion  might  be  planned 
with  this  in  view.  The  seeds  might  then  be  planted  and 
watched,  and  the  behavior  of  the  seedlings  noted.  This  method 
would  consume  more  time  and  energy,  but  the  reader  will  not 
have  to  waste  much  time  in  deciding  which  method  of  gaining 
knowledge  will  make  it  real  to  the  child.  No  matter  how  great 
our  enthusiasm  may  be,  we  suppose  that  even  the  latter  method 
may  fail  in  some  cases,  and  that  some  children,  especially  those 
who  are  so  unfortunate  as  to  be  too  much  the  prisoners  of  city 
streets,  may  be  too  blas£  to  feel  that  anything  of 

Dependence 

ontheEmo-     the  kind  is  worth  while.     But  in  education   as  in 
everything  else  we  must  place  our   reliance   upon 
those  principles  which  have  the  greatest  degree  of  probability 
for  good  results. 

But  another  alternative  might  be  introduced  into  our  illustra- 
tions. The  teacher  might  supply  a  specimen  of  each  kind  of 
plant,  as  to  the  number  of  seed  leaves,  and  the  children  be  set 
to  making  drawings,  and  in  short  doing  what  is  generally  called 
laboratory  work.  This  method  would  have  the  advantage  of 
allowing  the  children  actually  to  see  the  objects ;  they  would 
really  observe  and  record.  The  criticism  which  may  be  made 
is  that  the  method  is  good  with  students  old  enough  to  acquire 


NATURE   STUDY  43 

in  a  short  time  a  good  number  of  facts  which  may  be  related  in 
the  mind ;  and  with  students  old  enough  so  that  they  do  not 
unwillingly  compose  themselves  to  the  mental  effort  necessary 
to  see  the  relations  of  things.  For  young  folks,  whose  efforts 
often  lack  direction,  a  single  lesson  is  too  likely  to  lack  mental 
association  and  will  entirely  fail  of  the  pleasurable  associations 
that  are  derived  by  doing  something  in  the  way  of  planting  or 
of  watching  for  something  to  happen.  There  must  be  "joyous 
activity  "  (James).  The  laboratory  method  must  therefore  be 
understood  in  a  broad  light  as  meaning  all  kinds  of  effort  to 
find  out  about  nature  ;  otherwise  it  will  be  too  strait  for  children 
in  the  lower  grades. 

One  difficulty  which  will  be  seen  in  the  suggestion  above 
given,  and  which  to  some  minds  constitutes  a  serious  objection 
to  an  apparently  slow  and  inefficient  method  of  Aslow 
presenting  information,  namely,  that  there  is  not  Method, 
time  enough  in  the  curriculum  to  carry  it  out,  even  admitting 
its  desirability.  And  indeed  it  does  look  like  a  big  task  to  take 
all  the  intellectual  inheritance  of  even  a  single  subject  and 
transmit  it  to  the  children  of  the  elementary  schools.  But 
in  the  first  place  the  term  "  intellectual  inheritance,"  while 
useful  in  expressing  what  we  mean,  looks  as  a  matter  of  fact 
rather  imposing.  The  amount  of  actual  information  neces- 
sary to  be  given  is  small.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
method  of  using  types  enables  the  student  to  get  a  generalized 
view  of  a  large  field  of  knowledge  ;  and  by  a  careful  use  of  the 
methods  of  acquiring  knowledge,  he  gets  a  real  notion  of  its 
validity,  because  he  knows  how  it  has  been  acquired,  and  be- 
cause he  knows  also  that  the  criteria  of  knowledge  which  he  is 
taught  to  apply  have  been  used. 

Again,  by  the  method  which  we  would  advocate,  and  as 
illustrated  by  the  second  alternative  of  our  illustration,  although 
the  aim  of  a  given  piece  of  work  as  stated  may  be  quite  re- 
stricted, it  is  found  true  that  many  opportunities  are  constantly 
presenting  themselves  incidentally  for  observation,  and  the 
student  is  naturally  led  into  new  fields  of  thought.  This  dis- 


44  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

covery  of  ever-widening  channels  for  investigation  is  one  of  the 
features  of  the  study  of  nature  which  makes  it  an  especially 
invigorating  exercise,  which  is  at  once  as  much  so  to  young 
minds  as  to  old,  since  problems  adaptable  to  either  are  abun- 
dant. It  is,  then,  but  a  step  for  a  pupil  from  ignorance  to 
independent  thought  under  the  skilful  guidance  of  a  good 
teacher ;  and  any  fact  gleaned  in  such  an  operation,  no  matter 
how  imperfect,  is  usually  firmly  held  in  the  mind. 

It  appears  from  the  immediately  foregoing  discussion  that, 
while  we  admit  and  urge  the  claim  that  in  nature  study  certain 
information  should  be  given,  it  will  be  evident  to  the  student 
that  what  we  have  said  concerning  the  method  of  doing  this  is 
closely  connected  with  the  method  of  acquisition  of  knowledge, 
which  we  shall  now  pass  on  to  inquire  into. 

We  have  endeavored  to  make  clear  in  the  first  chapter  that 
the  scientific  method  of  thought  is  common  to  all  the  sciences 
Scientific  proper,  but  is  not  peculiar  to  them,  beyond  that  to 
T?ought°in  tnem  must  be  referred  the  lesson  of  the  real  impor- 
wature  study,  tance  and  nature  of  this  method  of  thought.  It  is 
therefore  clear  that  although  nature  study  is  no  one  science, 
yet  having  for  its  materials  those  of  nature,  and  for  its  aim  in 
part  the  understanding  of  natural  phenomena,  its  method  of 
thought  is  the  scientific.  It  will  then  be  to  our  purpose  to  get 
a  clear  idea  of  what  that  method  is,  and  to  this  end  we  shall 
analyze  it,  and  discuss  separately  the  distinct  operations  involved. 
It  must,  however,  constantly  be  remembered  that  when  the 
mind  is  in  play  the  operations  are  interwoven,  so  that  it  is 
only  by  reflection  that  the  various  operations  may  be  recognized. 

The  conclusions  arrived  at  by  reasoning  may  be  vitiated  either 
by  the  falsity  of  the  methods  of  the  latter,  or  by  failure  to  base 
it  upon  facts.  If  the  reasoning  is  right  and  the  facts  wrong, 
the  process  may  be  instructive  as  an  example  of  logic,  but  the 
inferences  drawn  may  not  be  relied  upon  ;  and  logic  for  the 
scientist  is  a  means  to  an  end.  It  becomes,  therefore,  of  first 
importance  that  the  determination  of  the  facts  be  exact;  and 
this  may  be  easy  or  difficult  according  to  the  nature  of  the 


NATURE  STUDY  45 

materials  with  which  one  is  concerned,  calling  for  ordinary  or 
for  special  powers  of  perception.  The  operation  is  usually  spoken 

of  as  observation  :  and  it  has  been  repeated  over 

,  Observation, 

so  many  times  ad  nauseam  by   every  writer  upon 

the  subject  that  nature  study  cultivates  the  powers  of  observa- 
tion, that  there  appears  to  be  no  special  reason  why  we  should 
do  more  than  mention  the  fact.  There  are,  however,  one  or 
two  matters  of  which  we  must  speak.  First,  the  matter  of 
observation,  when  regarded  as  the  foundation  of  all  reasoning 
which  gives  conclusions  which  are  true,1  is  seen  in  a  light  which 
displays  the  true  dignity  of  the  operation.  Upon  it  depends 
jjie  validity  of  all  human  knowledge  and  therefore  all  human 
welfare.  Those  who  determine  facts  lay  the  foundations  for 
the  superstructure  of  human  thought.  "  It  is  better  to  know  a 
little  than  to  know  so  many  things  that  are  not  so,"  is  an 
aphorism  with  a  pertinent  lesson  in  it.  Sound  education  can- 
not be  had,  therefore,  when  insufficient  attention  is  given  to 
the  training  of  the  child  in  habits  of  strict  observation  and  of 
demanding  facts  of  others  when  they  are  necessary.  The  latter, 
which  is  the  habit  of  asking  first  for  the  facts  in  a  problem, 
is  a  generalized  habit  which  grows  out  of  the  former.  It  will 
be  patent,  therefore,  that  the  work  of  the  teacher  is  to  aim  at 
establishing  an  attitude  of  mind  and  not  simply  at  developing 
keenness  of  sight  or  of  touch  or  hearing.2 


1  We  shall  not  attempt  to  qualify  our  statements  with  reference  to 
the  doctrine  of  probability.      The  student  will  realize  that,  in  dealing 
with  human  knowledge,  we  are  dealing  with  degrees  of  probability  of 
truth.     See  Pearson,  K.,  Grammar  of  Science,  Chapter  IV. 

2  Henkle,  W.  U.  (Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  59,  1870),  in  criticising  the  claim  that 
object  lessons  taught  observation,  said  that  "  study  in  one  direction  does 
not  necessarily  fit  one  for  study  in  another."    This  is  in  part  true  and  in 
part  false.     For  example,  one  may  be  keen  in  the  observation  of  flowers 
and  not  see  the  birds  around  him   or  hear  them.     But  the  point  to  be 
taken  account  of  in  education  is  that,  first,  the  observing  power  of  a 
child  is  normally  keen  enough.      What  he  has  to  learn  is  to  direct  it,— 
that  is,  to  confine  the  attention  to  a  particular  field  and  observe  to  some 
purpose.     The  second  is  to  realize  the  necessity  and  value  of  observa- 
tion, and  to  keep  up  the  habit. 


46  THE    TEACHING    OF  BOTANY 

It  is  to  the  point  also  to  remark  that  there  is  no  reason 
why  we  should  distinguish  invidiously  between  one  sense  and 
with  all  the  another.  One  may  be  more  useful  than  another 
Senses.  js  m  a  particular  field.  It  is  the  conviction  of  the 

truth  of  this  that  is  in  part  responsible  for  the  development  of 
manual  training.1  The  more  senses  there  may  be  employed  in 
any  particular  exercise  of  observation,  the  greater  the  impression 
on  the  mind  and  the  more  healthful  and  invigorating  the  process. 
The  botanist  or  zoologist  who  is  engaged  in  studying  an  object 
is  not  content  with  seeing ;  he  draws,  colors,  models,  does 
everything  and  uses  every  means  of  observation  to  reassure 
himself;  and  there  is  a  mental  exhilaration  in  finding  that  one 
operation  verifies  another.  There  is  also  the  effect  of  creating 
more  far-reaching  and  useful  mental  associations,  and  a  cultiva- 
tion of  the  visual  memory  and  constructive  imagination,  the 
exercise  of  which  is  of  unquestionable  use  to  the  active  brain. 
The  school  has  far  too  long  been  engaged  in  training  one  kind 
of  memory,  the  extreme  result  of  which  is  seen  in  the  Chinese 
system  of  education  and  its  products.  The  same  tendency  is 
seen  in  England  where  the  examination  system  prevails. 

Again,  exercises  in  observation,  to  be  effective  in  the  cultiva- 
tion of  a  proper  attitude  of  mind,  must  be  of  the  kind  known 
At  First  as  "  first  hand."  The  material  to  be  observed 
Hand.  must  be  available  for  the  child,  and  he  must  be 

judiciously  led  to  observe  by  the  means  which  an  intelligent 
teacher  will  be  able  to  use,  with  a  minimum  of  suggestion  of 
the  facts  to  be  observed.  Comenius  and  his  followers  laid 
stress  upon  independent  observation  ;  and  in  the  failure  to 
realize  this  lies  the  educational  weakness  of  the  "  verification  " 
method  of  the  earlier  laboratory  manuals.  This  method,  while 
of  undoubted  use  when  one  wishes  to  accumulate  a  large  fund 
of  information  for  particular  purposes,  as  when  in  preparation 
for  a  calling,  such  as  medicine,  is  certainly  not  useful  as 
training  in  good,  probing  observation.  The  whole  value  of 


Sedgwick,  '93. 


NATURE  STUDY  47 

nature  study  is  the  creation  of  "  large  interests  "  with  lasting 
quality;  and  the  best  way  to  defeat  this  end  is  to  use  persist- 
ently the  "  verification  method "  with  young  children.  To 
attain  the  end,  therefore,  for  which  we  are  seeking,  the  child 
must  have  abundance  of  material,  the  value  of  which  he  must  ap- 
preciate, which  he  must  study  for  himself,  and  not  be  told  about 
or  read  of.  He  must  value  the  material,  that  is,  he  must  know 
by  his  own  experience  what  it  costs  to  get  it.  He  will  then  be 
inclined  to  make  the  best  use  of  it.  And  in  this  is  a  strong 
argument  for  the  use  of  the  school  garden  where  pupils  can 
raise  their  own  materials  for  adornment  and  use,  and  for 
properly  conducted  field  work  beyond  the  precincts  of  the 
school. 

Thirdly,  there  is,  in  relation  with  the  operations  which  we 
are  discussing,  an  important  principle  to  be  kept  in  mind,  the 
neglect  of  which  has  led  to  a  very  large  amount  of  fallacious 
teaching  and  pedantry.  It  is  that  a  thing  and  its  name  are  two 
different  matters  with  an  arbitrary  albeit  useful  relation,  and 
that  this  relation  may  be  useful  to  some  and  not  to  others.  It 
may  be  well  for  a  zoologist  to  be  able  to  call  an  article  of  a 
beetle's  leg  the  tarsus,  but  the  same  may  not  be  true  of 
a  little  fellow  seven  years  old.  By  analogy  it  may  be  seen 
that  the  same  seven-year-old  subject  may  have  no  particular 
use  for  the  information  that  a  beetle  has  six  legs ;  but  at  any 
rate,  if  he  is  looking  after  a  crop  of  potatoes  he  will  in  all  prob- 
ability acquire  that  fact,  and  this  in  connection  with  some  use- 
ful operation,  such  as  finding  out  that  a  pest  to  him  must  be  a 
pest  to  humanity  in  general. 

A  name  helps  us  to  talk  about  a  thing ;  and  when  pupil  and 
teacher  fully  understand  this  they  will  both  be  better  off.  The 
study  of  simple  facts  in  relation  to  other  simple  facts  will  be  a 
cure  for  this  form  of  pedantry  of  which  we  speak,  by  supplant- 
ing it.  When  the  necessity  for  a  name  arises,  its  raison  d'etre 
is  appreciated,  and  then  any  name  mutually  and  generally 
understood  will  do.  The  observation  of  things  is  not  learning 
the  name  of  things,  and  it  is  the  mark  of  an  ignorant  mind  that 


48  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

it  can  be  cheated  with  a  name  provided  only  that  it  is  big 
enough. 

Lastly,  it  is  true  that  although  the  observation  of  facts  is  the 
first  step  in  the  building  up  of  a  body  of  knowledge,  it  is  not 
necessarily  the  easiest.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  in  many  cases 
the  most  laborious  part  of  it  and  calls  for  the  most  patient  and 
painstaking  care  on  the  part  of  the  observer.  But  the  investi- 
gator, that  is,  any  one  who  is  at  work  upon  a  problem,  sees 
what  he  is  after;  he  has,  so  to  speak,  a  vision  of  the  future 
and  knows  what  he  is  driving  at.  A  child,  on  the  other  hand, 
knows  in  a  vivid  way  the  present  only,  and  to  that  extent  ob- 
servation is  meaningless.  There  follows  from  this  two  impor- 
tant principles,  namely,  that  relatively  simple  problems  shall  be 
taken  for  the  simple  mind ; l  and  secondly,  observation  must 
be  made  upon  materials,  the  fate  of  which  is  a  matter  of  the 
child's  interest.  The  habit  of  looking  to  the  future  intelligently 
and  planning  for  it  is  a  habit  which  is  developed  most  highly 
in  civilized  man,  and  it  cannot  be  started  at  too  early  an  age. 
The  best  sort  of  lessons  in  this  direction  are  learned  by  the 
experience  gained  by  growing  crops,  on  a  suitable  scale,  to  be 
sure,  and  by  finding  out  the  cost  of  production.  In  this  we 
have  another  pertinent  argument  for  the  institution  of  the 
school  garden,  in  adding  to  the  pupil's  work  the  element  of 
futurity,  and  in  giving  him  a  real  opportunity  to  appreciate  the 
value  of  human  effort. 

There  are  some  subsidiary  processes  of  observation  of  which 
we  may  briefly  speak.  These  are  analysis  and  discrimination. 

When  we  desire  to  know  anything  about  an  object 
•Analysis  * 

which  comes  under  our  notice,  the  first  thing  we  do 

is  to  examine  its  parts,  and  in  proportion  to  our  desire  to  com- 
prehend the  object  do  we  carry  out  our  analysis  in  an  orderly 
and  exhaustive  way. 

The  general  destructiveness  of  children  is  prompted   by  a 

1  This  appears  axiomatic,  but  we  state  it  rather  to  emphasize  the  im- 
portance of  grading  observation  work  carefully  by  the  suitable  choice  of 
problems. 


NATURE  STUDY  49 

desire  to  see  the  works,  and  is  not  a  vicious  propensity. 
Their  destructiveness  is  a  crude  method  of  analysis.  True,  it 
may  become  vicious  if  left  unguided,  but  like  curiosity  in 
general  it  is  useful  in  leading  to  investigation.  It  is  therefore 
quite  proper  to  introduce  at  suitable  times,  especially  in  the 
later  years  of  the  elementary  schools,  work  which  enters  some- 
what more  deeply  into  the  structure  of  plants  and  animals,  at 
least  enough  observation  of  internal  parts  as  will  serve  for  a 
basis  for  experimental  work  in  ecology  and  physiology,  the 
introduction  of  which,  however,  we  justify  also  upon  other 
considerations. 

In  the  examination  of  more  or  less  similar  objects  we  find  it 
necessary  to  distinguish  between  them,  to  see  their  likenesses 
and  differences.  In  this  way  as  children  we  exer-  Discrimina- 
cise  the  power  of  discrimination  and  that  which  is  tion> 
contingent  on  it,  the  ability  to  classify,  in  making  collections 
of  objects,  and,  in  a  more  or  less  crude  way,  in  arrangement  of 
like  with  like.  It  is  clear  that  the  ability  to  recognize  things  as 
similar  and  dissimilar  is,  in  reality,  the  beginning  of  generaliza- 
tion ;  and  careful  study  when  young  of  groups  of  objects  and 
the  construction  of  definitions  which  shall  be  exact,  is  training 
in  the  power  of  generalization  which  deserves  a  place  in  the 
elementary  curriculum.  This  could  be  done,  for  example,  if  in 
a  school  garden  the  different  varieties  of  beans,  of  tomatoes,  and 
so  on,  were  raised  by  different  children  ;  each  pupil  might  then 
study  the  materials  of  others,  and  get  at  ideas  by  comparison, 
which  at  once  would  lead  to  classification  on  the  one  hand  and 
immediately  useful  information  about  varieties  of  vegetables  on 
the  other. 

Discrimination  is  not  at  all  easy  if  the  objects  are  at  all 
complex  or  if  the  differences  are  slight ;  and  there  is  consider- 
able danger  that  teachers  give  work  to  young  children  which  is 
not  only  useless  but  quite  beyond  their  reach.  To  know  the 
commoner  kinds  of  trees  is  generally  regarded  as  useful  and 
enjoyable,  but  to  expect  children  in  the  lower  grades  to  know 
different  oaks  or  willows  or  maples  is  unreasonable,  while  they 

4 


50  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

may,  however,  be  able  to  distinguish  the  oak  from  the  maple, 
the  ash  from  the  elm.  To  study  classification  of  animals  or 
plants  is  for  the  most  part,  we  believe,  entirely  beyond  the  realm 
of  nature  study  and  should  be  left  to  the  high  school. 

In  what  has  just  been  said  in  the  two  preceding  paragraphs 
we  have  anticipated  ourselves  somewhat.  The  third  step  in 
the  process  which  we  are  examining  is  that  of  combining  in  the 
mind  a  group  of  like  concepts,  and  forming  what  is  known  as 
an  induction.  By  this  means  we  are  able  to  put  into  brief  form, 
by  a  sort  of  "  mental  shorthand,"  a  large  number  of  observa- 
tions. In  this  manner  the  orderly  mind  may  be  regarded  as 
"  a  set  of  pigeon  holes  "  appropriately  labelled,  into  which  our 
observational  experiences  are  placed  on  file.  The  more  orderly 
the  brain,  ceteris  paribus,  the  greater  the  number  of  facts  which 
may  be  disposed  of  in  an  orderly  manner  and  which  may  be 
used. 

It  is,  however,  to  be  noted  that  although  we  may  assert  some 
quality  of  a  large  number  of  objects,  that  is,  we  may  group  a 
large  number  of  facts  together  in  one  group  and  then  into  an 
inclusive  statement,  thus  forming  an  induction,  we  do  not  ex- 
tend, by  this,  our  actual  knowledge.1  The  ability,  however,  to 
subsume  under  a  short  formula  a  large  number  of  observations  is 
an  indication  of  the  mind's  grasp.  "...  The  power  of  sifting 
and  arranging  perceptions,  the  power  of  rapidly  passing  from 
sense  impression  to  fitting  exertion,  is  seen  to  be  a  factor  of 
paramount  importance  to  man  in  the  battle  of  life."2 

Reflection  will  show,  however,  that  the  mind  does  not  rest 

content  with  such  definitions,  but  seeks  rather  to  extend  its  sway 

over  the  field  of  the  unobserved.     It  is  obviously 

impossible  for  an  individual,  or  for  all  individuals,  to 

observe  all  the  facts  subsumed  under  one  generalization.     The 

passage  from  the  observed  to  the  unobserved  is  by    a  logical 


1  The  student  should  consult  Hyslop's  Elements  of  Logic :  Theoretical 
and  Practical,  for  a  lucid  discussion  of  induction  and  deduction. 

2  Pearson,  K.,  Grammar  of  Science,  p.  103. 


NATURE  STUDY  51 

leap  known  as  inference,  the  probability  of  the  truth  of  which  is 
affected  by  the  number  of  observations  upon  which  it  rests.  If 
upon  the  study  of  a  number  of  plants  it  is  found  hat  some  have 
two  seed  leaves  and  some  one,  the  induction  may  be  drawn  that 
these  plants  may  be  arranged  into  two  groups,  each  character- 
ized by  the  number  of  seed  leaves.  If,  further,  it  is  concluded 
that  all  plants  may  be  so  grouped,  we  make  an  inference  which 
will  as  a  matter  of  fact  be  incorrect,  but  illustrates  well  its  re- 
lation to  the  number  of  observations.  And  this  error  is  one 
which  might  actually  be  made  in  the  schoolroom  or  garden  by 
children.  It  is  worth  while  to  say  here  that  many  teachers 
would  miss  a  good  opportunity  for  scientific  training  by  saying 
outright  that  the  inference  is  wrong.  It  would  pedagogically 
be  much  better  to  get  the  children  to  see  exactly  what  they 
had  done,  and  to  get  them  to  put  a  question  mark  after  their 
conclusion.  They  should  then  be  led  to  see  that  it  is  necessary 
to  seek  for  more  facts.  Their  own  work  and  thought  may  thus 
be  used  as  a  stimulus  to  further  investigation.  Instead  of 
thinking  a  mental  task  done,  therefore,  they  will  see  that  they 
will  be  cultivating  that  inquiring  attitude  of  mind  which  is  char- 
acterized by  the  ability  and  willingness  to  suspend  judgment. 
This  cannot  be  the  case  unless  the  student  learns  to  apprehend 
the  doctrine  of  probability  and  the  value  of  submitting  his  con- 
clusions to  the  test.  The  importance  of  this  is  well  attested  by 
an  actual  instance  of  the  acceptance  of  a  sweeping  generaliza- 
tion based  upon  one  observation.  In  1891  it  was  discovered 
that  in  the  plant  Casuarina  the  pollen  tube  had  the  following 
peculiar  behavior.  Instead  of  passing  through  the  micropyle 
of  the  ovule,  as  is  true  in  very  many  cases,  and  at  that  time 
supposed  to  be  in  all  except  Casuarina,  it  penetrated  through 
the  tissues  of  the  style  and  placenta,  through  the  funicle,  chalaza, 
and  nucellus,  following  in  its  course  the  supernumerary  embryo 
sacs,  and  so  reaching  the  egg.  Inasmuch  as  Casuarina,  for 
other  reasons,  is  regarded  as  approaching  the  primitive  dicotyle- 
dons, the  investigator  was  led  to  propose  a  taxonomic  arrange- 
ment of  these  plants  into  two  groups,  the  Porogams  and  Chal- 


52  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

azogams,  and  this  generalization  was  adopted  in  Engler  and 
Prantl's  Natuerlichen  Pflanzenfamilien  A  short  time  later  it 
was  found  that  other  plants  showed  similar  characters,  and  that 
in  some  families  both  modes  of  behavior  of  the  pollen  tube  oc- 
curred. Thus  a  broad  inference  based  on  one  physiological 
fact  collapsed,  as  might  have  been  expected.  It  is  clear  from 
the  simple  character  of  the  illustration  given  above,  that  the  habit 
of  avoiding  such  fallacious  ways  of  thought  is  well  within  the 
reach  of  children  in  the  elementary  school,  and  that,  even  if 
older  minds  do  fall  into  error,  such  a  habit  is  well  worth  culti- 
vating in  the  young. 

We  have  said  that  a  student  should  be  led  to  see  the  neces- 
sity of  testing  his  conclusions  by  reference  to  more  observations. 

This  brings  us  to  the  last  point  in  this  discussion 
Deduction. 

concerning  the  reasoning  process,  that  of  deduction. 

The  inability,  for  practical  reasons,  to  observe  all  the  facts  makes 
it  necessary  to  use  possibly  incomplete  formulae  in  our  thinking, 
and  to  attempt  to  explain  by  these  the  phenomena  which  come 
under  our  notice.  This  is  a  part  of  the  scientific  method  of 
thought.  The  unscientific  mind  differs  from  the  scientific  mind 
in  the  ease  with  which  it  falls  into  the  belief  that  a  generalization 
once  made,  especially  if  it  gets  into  a  book,  is  of  necessity  true. 
The  consequent  unreadiness  to  throw  aside  an  hypothesis  which 
is  insufficient  to  cover  the  case,  and  with  which  the  facts  sub- 
sequently observed  are  out  of  harmony,  is  a  mental  paralysis 
which  ends  in  complete  stagnation  of  thought.  "  For  the  per- 
son who  is  convinced  that  he  has  found  the  right  explanation' 
is  not  going  to  seek  for  it." l  That  this  tendency  is  found  in 
trained  minds  and  has  to  be  guarded  against  is  apparent  to 
any  one  who  is  acquainted  with  the  trend  of  the  post-Darwinian 
discussions  on  the  origin  of  species.2 

The  habit  of  testing  our  knowledge  as  we  go  along,  and  of 

1  Weismann,  August,  On  Germinal  Selection  (1895).     Chicago,  1896. 
P.  17. 

2  For   a   general   and  pertinent  criticism,  see    Hugo,  de  Vries,    The 
Origin  of  Species  by  Mutation. 


NATURE   STUDY  53 

laying  aside  preconceived  or  incomplete  ideas,  is,  then,  of  para- 
mount importance,  and  we  believe  we  are  in  nowise  justified  in 
allowing  the  cultivation  of  such  a  habit  to  be  left  for  the  years 
beyond  those  of  the  grammar  school.  And  let  it  be  said  that 
these  steps  in  thought  are  no  artificial  matters  which  are  to  be 
arbitrarily  introduced  into  the  curriculum.  Children  actually  use 
them  properly  or  improperly,  and  it  becomes  of  the  highest  im- 
portance to  see  to  it  that  the  former  obtains.  It  is  not  necessary 
that  children  should  study  logic  ;  they  use  logic  and  the  teacher 
who  is  not  keen  in  scenting  logical  fallacies,  and  who  is  not  skil- 
ful in  leading  the  young  thinker  aright,  is  incompetent.  The 
problem  for  the  teacher  is  chiefly  to  keep  alive  the  attitude  of  in- 
quiry which  children  have,  and  to  teach  them  to  acquire  and  to 
keep  to  right  habits  of  thinking.  The  chief  criticism  in  this 
regard  against  education  is  that  this  ability  of  children  to  think 
clearly  is  blunted  ;  for  they  are  naturally  keen,  as  every  one  who 
has  had  to  face  their  questioning  knows.  It  is  not  necessary, 
furthermore,  to  suppose  that  these  methods  of  thought  are 
merely  schoolroom  exercises,  for  they  are  called  for  in  all  intel- 
ligent work,  and  the  garden  offers  just  as  good  an  opportunity 
for  their  cultivation  as  anywhere. 

Inasmuch  as  for  practical  reasons  the  end  of  education  is 
informational  as  well  as  disciplinary,  it  may  easily  be  appre- 
hended that  it  is  impossible  for  a  student  to  work 

..     .     Students' 
to  a  very  great  extent  inductively.     1  here  is  a  limit  Work  mainly 

,     Deductive, 
in  the  inductive  method  which  is  very  soon  reached. 

The  "  method  of  discovery  "  which  has  been  overworked  by  very 
many  teachers  has  been  condemned  justifiably  because  it  laid 
stress  on  induction  to  the  sacrifice  of  information.  Its  advo- 
cates do  not  seem  to  have  comprehended  the  wide  field  of  de- 
duction. We  have  in  practice  to  use  the  observations  of  others 
as  well  as  our  own,  depending  upon  the  uniformity  of  mental 
processes  in  normal  minds  and  the  validity  of  their  observa- 
tions. By  the  choice  of  materials  also,  we  as  teachers  are 
habitually  making  it  unnecessary  for  a  student  to  multiply  his 
observations  by  long  research  and  thus  allow  him  to  draw  in- 


54  THE    TEACHING    OF  BOTANY 

ferences  which  would,  but  for  the  selection  of  proper  materials, 
probably  be  invalid.  That  is,  we  select  types  for  study,  and 
not  a  heterogeneous  multitude  of  animals  or  plants,  and  we 
enable  a  student  to  get  at  his  intellectual  inheritance  quickly. 
It  would  be  quite  impossible  for  a  child  ten  years  of  age  to  col- 
late the  facts  upon  which  is  based  our  knowledge  of  nitrogenous 
bacteria,  even  by  the  verification  method,  to  say  nothing  of  the 
method  of  discovery  ;  but  we  ask  him  to  verify  some  portions  of 
our  well-attested  knowledge  by  the  examination  of  certain  easily 
observable  facts  concerning  root  tubercles  and  the  relation  of 
these  to  the  growth  of  leguminous  plants.  Such  knowledge 
may  become  a  part  of  one's  self  by  using  it  and  seeing  that  it  is 
true  because  consonant  with  further  experience.  Such  work  is 
deductive,  and  most  experimental  work  is  of  this  kind.  We  do 
not  set  up  a  lot  of  indiscriminate  experiments ;  but  relying  upon 
some  guiding  supposition,  we  do  a  definite  experiment  to  see  if 
the  result  accords  with  the  hypothesis.  But  no  one  for  this  rea- 
son decries  the  use  of  experiments.  The  main  consideration 
for  the  teacher  is  to  see  to  it  that  an  experiment  when  performed 
shall  be  "logically  conclusive."  The  results  shall  be  stated  in 
Value  of  sucn  w'se  tnat  onty  tnat  which  is  actually  taught  by 
Experiment.  an  experiment  shall  be  included,  and  then  what 
principle  it  is  used  to  illustrate.  As  a  result  of  failure  to  follow 
these  rules,  many  errors  creep  in,  thus  completely  defeating  the 
value  of  experimental  work.  One  of  the  most  common  is  found 
in  connection  with  plant  physiology.  When  an  experiment  is 
performed  with  a  tap  root  showing  that  it  responds  to  the  stim- 
ulus of  gravitation,  a  pupil  is  frequently  allowed  to  state,  as  his 
conclusion,  that  roots  grow  downward,  —  a  conclusion  not  only 
illogical  but  false.  The  recognition  of  such  fallacies,  and  the 
strict  adherence  to  what  is  learned  and  what  is  not  learned  by 
an  experiment,  is  as  good  training  in  the  scientific  method  as 
any  other,  since  it  makes  for  the  critical  attitude  of  mind.  The 
discussion  of  the  value  of  experiment  would  be  incomplete  if  its 
importance  in  helping  the  teacher  and  student  to  steer  clear  of 
certain  prevalent  fallacies  of  thought  were  overlooked.  We 


NATURE   STUDY  55 

have  in  mind  those  which  are  made  in  the  attempt  by  the 
teacher  to  discover  to  the  child  the  adaptation  of  organic  forms 
to  their  environment.  Because  we  believe  organisms  to  be  es- 
sentially adaptive,  we  are  easily  led  to  suppose  that  every  organ, 
whatever  it  may  be  and  however  insignificant,  must  be  explained 
to  have  some  use,  or  the  teacher's  duty  is  not  done,  and  in  this  lies 
the  danger  to  which  we  refer.  And  we  must  blame,  not  so  much 
the  teacher  of  perhaps  somewhat  limited  opportunities  for 
mental  training,  as  the  many  clever  writers  who  have  written  so 
many  fairy  tales  about  plants  and  animals,  without  paying  any  at- 
tention to  the  rigid  examination  of  the  facts.  The  fallacy  lies  in 
the  gratuitous  explanation  of  the  functions  of  organs,  without 
submitting  the  matter  to  experimental  proof,  or  at  least  a  test  of 
some  kind.  To  be  sure,  the  uses  of  many  organs  are  obvious 
at  a  glance.  We  can  have  no  doubt  of  the  usual  Adaptation 

use  of  a  horse's  leg,  though  we  may  discover  further  and  Experi- 

'  mental  Proof, 

uses    by  injudicious  experiment.     But  this  is   not 

always  the  case,  especially  if  the  use  is  passive,  or  if  it  does  not  in- 
volve a  readily  observed  mechanical  relation ;  such,  for  illustra- 
tion, as  the  use  of  the  wings  of  seeds  or  fruits.  We  have,  of  course, 
read  accounts  of  these  structures,  and  we  have  been  too  readily 
persuaded  that  their  use,  as  organs  for  dissemination,  is  perfect, 
and  without  any  doubt  determined.  Now,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
there  is  some  doubt  of  this,  in  the  case  of  some  plants  at  least, 
and  at  any  rate  the  subject  is  still  open  to  experiment.  More- 
over, because  some  wings  do  serve  this  function  with  some  de- 
gree of  efficiency,  it  by  no  means  follows  that  all  wings  on  seeds 
and  fruits  have  a  like  function.  There  are  some  dehiscent  fruits 
which  are  supplied  with  very  definite  wings  ;  in  which  case  it  is 
obvious  that  they  must  serve  some  other  function.  While  it 
may  not  be  possible  always  for  the  teacher  or  pupil  to  undertake 
the  complete  solution  of  such  a  problem,  so  much  as  is  done  on 
the  subject  may  be  done  with  the  exercise  of  some  degree  of 
critical  judgment.  This  may  be  done  by  the  application  of  ex- 
perimental methods,  by  which  means  may  be  determined,  not 
only  the  use  of  an  organ,  but  also  its  actual  value  or  degree  of 


56  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

efficiency.  This  tends  to  eliminate  the  hazy  and  inexact  and 
untrue,  and  to  cultivate  accuracy  of  thought  and  statement. 
The  position  which  Jackman  has  taken  in  regard  to  quantitative 
work  is  therefore  a  good  one. 

The  gratuitous  manner  of  treating  the  subject  of  adaptation 
in  organisms  is  perhaps  the  greatest  objection  which  may  be 
advanced  against  the  use  of  ecology  in  elementary  education, 
for  the  reason  that  ecology  is  that  part  of  the  science  of  botany, 
or  of  zoology,  which  concerns  itself  especially  with  the  fact  and 
method  of  adjustment  of  the  organism  to  its  environment.  The 
subject  is  as  old  as  the  study  of  natural  history  ;  but  the  word 
ecology,  which  is  of  recent  coinage,  stands  for  the  most  modern 
development  of  the  study  which  nowadays  has  for  its  aim  the 
exact  and  so  far  as  possible  experimental  determination  of  the 
relation  of  organism  and  environment.  It  is  obvious,  therefore, 
that  no  searching  work  may  be  done  without  the  synthesis  of  all 
Ecology  in  kinds  of  knowledge  of  the  organism,  —  structural, 
Nature  study,  morphological,  and  physiological.  Nevertheless,  we 
desire  to  bring  to  the  notice  of  children  the  great  principle  of 
adaptation,  and  it  would  be  a  singular  sort  of  nature  study 
which  did  not.  The  thing  for  every  teacher  to  keep  in  mind 
is  that,  so  far  as  possible,  everything  shall  be  subjected  to  some 
sort  of  experimental  test,  remembering  that  it  is  better  for  a  pupil 
to  deal  with  a  few  well-determined  facts  in  illustration  of  a 
principle  than  it  is  to  get  an  inexact  and  poetic  view  of  a  sub- 
ject, based  upon  hearsay  and  the  opinion  of  the  incompetent. 
The  method  of  teaching  ecology  as  much  as  any  other  part  of 
a  science  "  shall  be  unfailingly  rational ;  that  facts,  though 
essential,  shall  be  rated  as  less  important  than  the  principles 
which  underlie  them."  x 

In  speaking  of  experiment  we  are  led  to  show  its  importance 
Cause  and  *n  ^ts  bearing  on  another  form  of  logical  error  which 
Purpose.  teachers  who  deal  with  living  organisms  are  very 
likely  to  fall  into,  and  which  tends  to  take  all  the  vitality  out  of 


1  Woodward,  C.  M.,  The  Change  of  Front  in 


NA  TURK  STUD  Y  57 

the  study  of  living  things.  It  is  the  improper  use  of  the  teleo- 
logical  interpretation  of  nature  and  its  confusion  with  the  causal 
relation.1  Technically  it  is  called  the  fallacy  of  post  hoc  ergo 
propter  hoc.  The  difficulty  is  a  very  subtle  one,  for  the 
reason  that  the  use  of  words  in  speaking  of  these  matters  is 
often  misleading.  The  prevalence  of  a  confusion  of  language 
and  of  ideas  in  elementary  books  on  botany  and  zoology,  and 
in  nature  study  "  readers,"  have  lent  a  weight  of  authority  to 
the  kind  of  reasoning  to  which  we  refer,  so  that  teachers  again 
and  again  fall  into  the  error  of  indulging  in  guesswork  in  total 
ignorance  of  the  underlying  fallacy.  An  illustration  will  make 
my  meaning  clearer. 

The  embryo  of  the  squash,  during  its  sprouting,  develops  a 
protuberance  ("  peg,"  "  heel  ")  on  the  side  of  its  stem  which,  in 
conjunction  with  the  hypocotyl  and  cotyledons,  effectually  opens 
the  seed-coat,  and  thus  the  cotyledons  are  early  set  free  when 
otherwise  they  would  be  kept  for  some  time  pinched  together  by 
the  seed-coat,  as  indeed  sometimes  happens.  Now,  it  has  been 
shown  2  that  the  production  of  the  "  peg"  in  the  cucurbits  is  a 
geotropic  response,  and  takes  place  on  one  side  of  the  stem  or 
the  other,  according  to  the  position  of  the  embryo  with  reference 
to  the  horizontal.  It  had  been  claimed  previously  to  Noll's 
work  that  the  seed-coats  acted  as  a  stimulus,  but  that  this  is 
not  true  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  peg  may  be  produced 
after  the  seed-coats  are  removed. 

Now  in  speaking  about  this  very  interesting  organ  in  the 
squash  seedling,  one  very  easily  falls  into  logical  and  verbal 
error.  "Why  does  the  squash  seedling  have  a  peg,"  is  usually 


1  In  this  connection  the  student  should  read  the  discussion  of  Cause 
and   Effect.      Pearson's    Grammar  of  Science.      See    also  Lloyd,  F.  E., 
Plant  Ecology  for  the  Elementary  School.     New   York   Teachers'  Mono- 
graphs, 4:  pp.  81-89.     March,  1902. 

2  Noll,   F.     Zur   Keimungs-Physiologie   der   Cucurbitaceen.      Land- 
ivirtsch.  Jahrb.    1901.     Erganzungsband  I.      In  addition  to  gravitation, 
the  production  of  the  peg  is  conditioned  by  the  bending  of  the  axis.     See 
a  summary  in   English   by  Lloyd,    F.   E.     Thef  "  Peg,"  or    "  Heel,"  in 
Seedlings  of  the  Cucurbitaceae.      Torreya,  i :  120.     October,  1901. 


58  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

answered  by  saying,  "  In  order  to  open  the  seed-coat "  ;  or  it 
may  be  said  that  the  squash  has  a  peg  "  because  it  needs  it  to 
open  the  seed-coat."  That  is,  the  action  of  the  peg  is  placed 
in  the  position  of  cause,  whereas  it  is  an  effect,  and  the  efficient 
cause  for  the  production  of  the  peg  must  be  sought  for  in  the 
sum  total  of  activities  set  free  by  the  stimulus  of  gravitation.  It 
is  reasonable  enough  to  ask  what  the  peg  is  good  for — to  in- 
quire into  the  behavior  or  purpose  of  the  mechanism  ;  and 
the  answer  should  be  sought  by  the  experimental  method,  the 
method  which  is  used  to  determine  the  cause  of  its  production. 
These  are  really  two  different  questions  often  by  confusion 
lumped  into  one. 

Again,  it  is  known  that  when  a  tap  root  bends,  the  secondary 
roots  which  are  produced  in  the  region  of  the  bending  grow  on 
the  convex  side  of  the  tap  root  and  not  on  the  concave  side. 
It  can  be  shown  that  the  purpose  x  of  this  is  a  more  effective 
distribution  of  roots  in  the  soil.  If  we  now  ask  why  secondary 
roots  are  produced  in  this  manner  we  should  properly  look 


1  Concerning  the  use  of  the  word  "  purpose,"  I  quote  the  following: 

"  By  the  expression,  This  or  that  mechanism  has  a  Purpose  in  an  organism, 
one  understands  really  nothing  more  than  that  this  contributes  to  the  ability  of 
the  organism  to  exist.  .  .  .  '  To  the  purpose '  means,  therefore,  in  general,  the 
same  as  '  capable  of  existence '  and  it  would  be  foolishness  to  waste  even  a  word 
as  to  whether  one  may  use  the  term  in  this  sense  or  not.  This  implies,  however, 
that  there  is  absolutely  no  scientific  merit  in  maintaining  of  any  organic  mech- 
anism whatever  that  it  is  in  general  to  the  purpose,  or  contributes  to  the  capability 
of  existence,  since  that  is  self-evident.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  in  certain  cir- 
cumstances very  important  and  profitable  to  demonstrate  how  far  and  tinder 
what  conditions  a  given  mechanism  in  the  organism  is  of  purpose;  in  what  way 
this  contributes,  in  combination  with  other  mechanisms,  to  the  capability  of  ex- 
istence of  a  given  organism;  and  strictly  speaking,  the  whole  of  physiology  is 
essentially  occupied  with  such  demonstrations."  (Sachs'  Physiology  of  Plants, 
English  translation,  p.  10.) 

"  It  must,  however,  never  be  forgotten  that  the  purpose  of  any  given  phenomenon 
can  only  be  determined  by  an  external  observer  on  the  basis  of  the  facts  which 
come  under  his  notice.  Ideas  of  purpose  being  mental  are  not  and  can  never  be 
the  direct  causes  of  anything  that  takes  place  in  the  plant.  1 1  is  therefore  always 
the  object  of  Physiology  to  investigate  the  ways  and  means  by  which,  under  cer- 
tain external  conditions,  and  with  varying  internal  dispositions,  some  particular 
final  result  is  produced,  and  to  trace  the  chain  of  causes  which  lead  to  this 
result."  (Pfeffer,  Physiology  of  Plants,  English  translation,  Vol.  I.,  p.  9,)  (Al{ 
italics  mine.) 


NATURE  STUDY  59 

to  the  structural  and  physiological  conditions  within  the  tap 
root  which  cause  the  one-sided  production  of  secondary  roots. 
If  we  mean  by  the  question  to  ask  what  advantage  or  disad- 
vantage to  the  plant  there  is  in  the  arrangement,  we  can  better 
state  the  inquiry  in  this  or  some  corresponding  form. 

Each  of  these  questions  is  legitimate,  but  each  is  distinct, 
and  to  avoid  error  should  be  kept  so.  The  teleology  which 
rests  upon  efficient  evidence,  experimental  or  otherwise,  is 
scientific  and  is  an  aim  of  physiology.  So  also  is  the  explana- 
tion in  terms  of  causality.  To  fail  to  distinguish  these  brings 
minds,  old  and  young  alike,  into  a  state  of  confusion  not  easily 
rectified. 

This  is  educationally  wrong,  for  one  of  the  things  which  we 
desire  above  all  to  have  the  human  being  learn,  and  learn  well, 
is  the  significance  of  the  causal  relation.  "  In  the  struggle  for 
existence  man  has  won  his  dictatorship  over  other  forms  of  life 
by  his  power  of  foreseeing  the  effects  which  flow  from  antece- 
dent causes."  l 

What,  then,  shall  a  teacher  do  to  avoid  the  error?  We  answer, 
first,  by  understanding  the  fallacy  himself;  and  secondly,  by 
using  language  which  is  not  so  likely  to  be  capable  of  a  double 
interpretation.  Thus  we  may  say,  "  What  is  the  cause  ?  "  instead 
of"  Why?"  when  the  causal  relation  is  to  be  understood  ;  and 
"  What  is  the  use  of?  "  or  "  What  is  the  function  of?  "  when  the 
teleological  aspect  is  examined  into.  This  is  not  merely  a 
quibble  over  the  use  of  words ;  for  if  words  are  to  be  used  to 
express  ideas,  and  the  person  has  clear  and  good  ideas,  it  is 
worth  while  to  acquire  the  habit  of  finding  and  sticking  to  the 
correct  forms  of  speech.  Looseness  of  diction  is  just  as  vicious 
in  expressing  scientific  ideas  as  any  other.  The  candidate  for 
the  teaching  profession  should  reflect  on  this  point  and  decide 
for  himself  on  the  validity  of  the  argument  advanced. 

In  this  chapter  I  have  endeavored  to  set  forth  the  reason 
why  nature  study  should  form  a  part  of  elementary  education. 


1  Pearson,  K.,  Grammar  of  Science,  p.  137. 


60  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

Apparent  failure  of  nature  study  in  some  quarters  is  to  be 
referred  to  inefficient  teachers.  It  is  claimed  that  to  rob 
children  of  opportunities  to  study  natural  objects  by  the  induc- 
tive method  is  wrong. 

A  criticism  of  the  object  lesson  shows  that  its  chief  weakness 
lies  in  the  fact  that  in  practice  it  failed  to  lay  enough  emphasis 
upon  the  strict  application  of  the  scientific  method  of  thought 
and  of  proper  educational  methods  derived  therefrom.  Its 
failure  is  therefore  chiefly  connected  with  the  teacher's  lack  of 
scientific  training.  Nature  study  lays  emphasis  constantly  upon 
work  by  the  pupils  carried  on  by  the  method  of  science. 

Nature  study  helps  to  make  people  "  happy  and  useful." 
Commencing  with  an  innate  generalized  interest  in  nature,  it 
preserves  and  refines  this.  It  is  especially  valuable  in  formal 
education  because  it  is  in  every  way  adapted  to  the  healthful 
development  of  mind  and  body  in  the  young.  It  helps  to  lead 
them  to  a  more  rational  kind  of  living,  because,  while  it  gives 
training  in  ability  to  use  the  processes  of  reasoning,  it  does  not 
neglect  aesthetic  considerations,  but  leads  to  a  better  interpre- 
tation of  nature  as  beautiful.  Furthermore,  nature  study  by 
teaching  a  stricter  adherence  to  facts  makes  for  that  intellectual 
honesty  which  produces  true  character ;  it  supplies  ideals  and 
thus  in  the  educational  sense  contributes  to  the  spiritualization 
of  man.  It  teaches  respect  for  others. 

Nature  study  is  of  value  because  of  the  information  it  gives, 
and  because  by  inculcating  right  habits  of  thought  it  tends  to 
produce  a  scientific  attitude  of  mind. 

Information  must  be  imparted  in  such  wise  as  not  to  raise 
authority  above  independence  of  thought.  Only  such  informa- 
tion may  be  imparted  which  is  associated  with  the  mental 
activity  of  the  pupil. 

The  scientific  method  of  thought  is  analyzed  and  shown  to 
be  simple  and  to  be  the  natural  method  in  children.  The 
severity  of  problems  given,  which  depends  upon  the  nature  of 
the  materials,  must  be  suited  to  their  mental  capacity,  and  the 
materials  of  nature  study  offer  all  possible  shades  of  difficulty. 


NATURE  STUDY  6 1 

The  value  of  experiment  is  pointed  out,  and  the  importance 
of  strict  adherence  to  the  teachings  of  an  experiment  as  part  of 
the  scientific  method  is  emphasized. 

The  fallacies  which  creep  into  teaching,  such  as  the  confusion 
of  the  teleological  and  causal  interpretations  applied  to  organic 
nature,  are  pointed  out,  together  with  the  errors  in  language 
which  accompanies  them. 


CHAFFER   III 

THE   VALUE    OF   BOTANY   IN    SECONDARY   EDUCATION 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Andrews,  E.  A.  False  and  True  Criticism  of  the  Public  School. 
EDUCATIONAL  REVIEW,  21  :  258.  1901. 

Galloway,  B.  T.  Applied  Botany,  Retrospective  and  Prospective. 
SCIENCF,  II.,  16:  49-59.  ii  July,  1902. 

Ganong,  W.  F.  The  Teaching  Botanist.  New  York,  The  Mac- 
millan  Co.  1899. 

Ganong,  W.  F.  The  Cardinal  Principles  of  Morphology.  BOTANICAL 
GAZETTE,  31 :  426-434.  June,  1901. 

Goebel,  K.  Organography  (translation  byBalfour).  Oxford,  Clar- 
endon Press. 

Huxley,  T.  H.  On  the  Educational  Value  of  the  Natural  History 
Sciences  (1854).  Essay  II.  Science  and  Education.  New  York,  D.  Ap- 
pleton  &  Co.  1898. 

Macbride,  T.  H.  Botany:  How  Much,  and  When.  Iowa  Teachers' 
Association.  December  28,  1898. 

von  Sachs,  J.     History  of  Botany.    Oxford,  Clarendon  Press.     1890. 

Spencer,  H.  Principles  of  Biology.  New  York,  D.  Appleton  &  Co. 
1900. 

Spencer,  H.  Education :  Intellectual,  Moral,  and  Physical.  New 
York,  D.  Appleton  &  Co.  1860. 

Thorndike,  E.  L.  Sentimentality  in  Science  Teaching.  EDUCA- 
TIONAL REVIEW,  17  :  57.  January,  1899. 

Tolman,  A.  H.  Natural  Science  in  a  Literary  Education.  POPULAR 
SCIENCE  MONTHLY,  49  :  98.  September,  1896. 

Wilson,  E.  B.  Presidential  Address  before  the  American  Society  of 
Naturalists.  SCIENCE,  II.,  13  :  14-23.  4  January,  1901. 

IN  the  first  and  second  chapters  we  have  entered  into  a 
somewhat  detailed  account  of  what  is  conceived  to  be  the  value 
of.  science  in  general  and  of  biology  in  particular  in  education. 
What  has  thus  been  said  in  a  general  way,  we  may  assume  to 
be  true  in  regard  to  botany.  It  therefore  remains  to  discuss 
such  peculiar  features  of  botany  as  are  of  importance  to  the 


THE    VALUE   OF  BOTAXY  IN  EDUCATION    63 

educator  in  determining  its  place  in  education,  and  especially 
those  aspects  of  the  subject  which  are  of  importance  in  the 
education  of  the  youth  of  high-school  age.  It  is  therefore  an 
elementary  course  in  botany  with  which  we  are  concerned  ;  one 
which  is  planned  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  average  person,  who 
will  not  in  all  probability  be  a  botanist,  and  whose  only  chance  to 
get  that  which  botany  offers  as  a  guide  to  "  complete  living  " 
will  be  limited,  likely  enough,  to  a  half-year  of  opportunity  in 
the  high  school.  We  as  teachers  believe  that  education  in 
science  and  in  its  methods  contributes  definitely  toward  the 
making  of  better  workers,  better  parents,  better  members  of 
society,  and  better  citizens.  We  believe,  also,  that  botany  has 
its  full  share  of  adaptability  and  value  in  these  regards.  It  is, 
however,  no  less  important  to  know  what  specifically  is  the 

part  it  may  and  should  play  in  education,  than  to 

'  .    The  Duty  of 

know  in  a  general  way  that  what  may  be  predicted   the  Teacher 

in  Botany, 
m  regard  to  science  as  a  whole  is  true  also  of  its 

several  parts.  It  is  true,  of  course,  that  just  as  all  departments 
of  science  merge  into  each  other,  and  are  by  no  means  sharply 
demarked  the  one  from  the  other,  we  cannot  attribute  to 
botany,  or  to  any  other  one  of  these  departments,  a  value 
which  is  more  than  a  relative  one.  But  this  rela-  To  determine 
live  value,  greater  or  less  than  that  of  the  other 
subjects,  it  has,  and  it  is  the  business  of  the 
educator  in  this  subject  to  know  as  exactly  as  possible  what 
this  value  is. 

Nor  may  the  fact  that  botany,  together  with  the  other 
sciences,  has  received  so  much  recognition  as  to  give  it,  with- 
out much  doubt,  a  place  more  or  less  settled  in  the  curric- 
ulum, beguile  us  into  the  belief  that  this  is  no  more  a  duty  upon 
us.  Curricula,  as  Herbert  Spencer  1  has  shown  in  his  treatise 
on  education,  have  been  and  indeed  are  still,  in  some  countries 
more  so  than  in  others,  the  expression  of  custom.  Since  the 


1  Education :    Intellectual,   Moral,  and  Physical.     "  Men    dress    their 
children's  minds  as  they  do  their  bodies,  in  the  prevailing  fashion." 


64  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

date  when  this  classic  of  Spencer's  was  written  there  has  been  a 
constantly  increasing  change  in  public  opinion  among  the  pro- 
gressive  western  nations ;   and  the  time  will  come  when  the 
sciences  will  be  the  generally  accepted  style.    Then, 

Sciencein        what  has  been  true  of  the  ''humanities,"  so-called, 
Education  .,,,,111  r     ,  •  i  •/• 

shall  be  the      will  probably  also  be  true  of  the  sciences.     And  if 

that  time  comes  when  conservatism  shall  put  the 
muzzle  on  the  inquiring  mouth,  when  "  everybody  studies  science 
nowadays,"  will  be  made  to  do  service  for  a  real  reason,  then, 
without  the  peradventure  of  a  doubt,  will  the  teaching  of  the 
subject  become  formal  and  lifeless.  The  hope  that  the  inquir- 
ing attitude  of  the  scientific  mind  will  be  so  common  a  pos- 
session of  the  people  that  the  bonds  of  custom  will  be  loosed 
so  as  to  make  this  condition  impossible  is  a  vain  one.  When 
we  contemplate  the  widespread  ignorance  of  the  common 
Then  is  it  in  knowledge  of  living  which  exists  at  the  present  day 
ger orSec*?1"  m  spite  of  modern  education  ;  when  we  realize  the 
dence.  lesson  of  history  that  all  reformation  of  lasting 

quality  is  slow,  and  when  we  face  the  fact  that,  even  for  those 
best  informed  and  best  trained  in  the  scientific  method,  it  is 
still  very  hard  to  set  and  still  more  so  to  live  up  to  a  standard  of 
rational  living,  —  it  is  at  once  evident  to  the  reflective  mind  that 
the  warning  here  given  is  no  idle  one.  Especially  is  this  true 
of  botany.  The  necessity  of  rescuing  this  subject  from  the 
girls'  school,  where  it  has  become  one  of  the  "  accomplish- 
ments," has  been  for  some  years  upon  us :  nor  is 
Special  Dan- 

Jfor  the  rescue  yet  complete.     It  is  still  thought  of  as  a 

girl's  study  —  save  the  name  —  and  the  impression 
that  of  necessity  it  cannot  be  anything  else  is  so  widespread  as 
to  offer  a  distinct  barrier  to  the  successful  teaching  of  boys  of 
super-virile  age.  This  statement  has  received  the  testimony  of 
many  teachers ;  and  while  the  attitude  is  not  an  insuperable 
obstacle,  and  is  one  which  by  the  power  of  a  good  teacher  may 
be  overcome,  it  is  one  of  the  real  difficulties  of  education  which 
has  grown  out  of  misconceptions.  We  turn  our  attention,  there- 
fore, in  this  chapter  to  the  consideration  of  those  aspects  of 


THE    VALUE   OF  BOTANY  IN  EDUCATION    65 

botany  which  justify  its  presentation  to  persons  of  high-school 
age. 

Concerning  the  pleasure  value  of  botany  but  little  needs  to  be 
said.  That  the  objects  which  form  the  materials  of  botany 
appeal  to  the  mind  as  having  beauty  of  form,  order,  and  color ; 
that  the  growth  and  behavior  of  plants  excite  and  hold  the 
interest  of  many  with  the  power  of  fascination  ;  that  their  care 
is  a  source  of  comfort  and  solace  to  some  or  of  vigorous  and 
intelligent  enjoyment  to  others ;  that  all  these  and  many  other 
aspects  of  man's  attitude  to  the  vegetable  world  are  real  and 
full  of  meaning  to  us ;  yet  we  must  take  the  position  that  it  is 
not  in  any  sense  the  primary  and  only  in  a  limited  sense  the 
secondary  object  of  the  teacher  of  botany  to  concern  himself 
with  these  things.  The  teacher  of  botany  is  not  concerned 
with  aesthetics.  This  ground  we  take  unequivocally,  but  in 
giving  reasons  why  botany  shall  constitute  a  part  of  education 
we  may  not  neglect  to  show  that  one  of  these  is  to  be  found  in 
the  attitude  which  the  human  mind  takes  toward  plants,  either 
consciously  or  unconsciously.  If  this  relation  is  one  which  in 
its  more  imperfect  and  unconscious  realization  results  in  pleas- 
ure ;  if  the  contemplation  of  the  myriad  varieties  of  form  and 
activity  in  a  relatively  superficial  way  leads  the  mind  into 
pleasant  avenues  of  thought ;  and  if  the  imperfect  acquaintance 
with  the  habits  and  beauties  of  plants  stimulates  the  imagination 
of  the  poet  and  his  reader,  we  must  believe  that 
the  more  perfect  and  conscious  realization  of  the  Knowledge 

relations  of  man  to  the  vegetable  world  will  beget   greater 

.  ...          Pleasure, 

greater  pleasure;  that  a  more  searching  examina- 
tion and  better  understanding  of  the  significance  of  plants  and 
their  business  will  lead  to  richer  fields  of  intellectual  and  emo- 
tional delights  ;  and  that  a  fuller  knowledge  of  these  organisms 
and  their  ways  will  furnish  vastly  more  material  for  the  play 
of  the  aesthetic  imagination.  If  this  be  true,  that  the  greater 
our  knowledge  and  information  the  wider  and  deeper  our 
pleasure  and  the  truer  the  aesthetic  feeling,  then  we  may  prop- 
erly urge  this  as  a  reason  why  the  great  mass  of  the  people  who 

5 


66  THE    TEACHING    OF  BOTANY 

live  more  "by  sentiment  than  by  riches"1  should  have  an 
opportunity  to  get  a  knowledge  of  plants  and  of  human  thought 
concerning  them. 

Further,  the  argument  is  strengthened  by  the  realization  of 
the  fact  that  for  many  persons  a  keen  interest  in  some  field  of 
thought  stands  as  a  powerful  incentive  to  activity.  This  propo- 
sition has  been  fully  presented  by  E.  B.  Wilson,  in  his  Presi- 
dential address  before  the  American  Society  of  Naturalists,2  in 
its  application  to  the  specialist  in  the  study  of  natural  history. 

"  I  have  said  that  the  keynote  of  Agassiz's  life  and  work  was 
his  love  of  nature  ;  and  in  this  respect  I  believe  that  he  was 
typical  of  the  great  naturalists  of  every  age.  It  has  of  late  be- 
come the  fashion  in  some  quarters  to  look  with  a  certain  con- 
descension on  what  is  styled  the  "  sentimental  side  "  of  natural 
history  ;  on  that  keen  primary  interest  in  biological  phenomena 
for  their  own  sake,  apart  from  their  scientific  analysis,  that  was 
characteristic  of  so  many  of  the  earlier  naturalists.  I  can  but 
believe  that  such  an  attitude  shows  a  lack  of  insight  into  the 
real  motives  and  sources  of  inspiration  of  all  great  observers  and 
discoverers.  Every  critical  analysis  of  the  progress  of  science 
leads  to  a  recognition  of  the  vital  importance  of  the  imaginative 
faculty  in  all  research  of  a  high  order ;  and  in  this  regard  great 
masters  of  creative  science,  such  as  Faraday  or  Darwin,  have 
rightly  been  placed  beside  the  great  masters  of  creative  art. 
.  .  .  We  must  recognize  that  there  is  no  more  potent  spring  of 
scientific  research  than  a  lively  interest  in  the  facts  —  in  other 
words,  the  aesthetic  satisfaction  that  lies  in  the  mere  observa- 
tion of  natural  phenomena.  Read  the  intimate  records  of  the 
lives  of  great  discoverers  in  every  field  of  science,  and  you  can- 
not fail  to  be  struck  with  this.  From  this  source  flows  the 
impulse  to  analyze  by  experiment,  to  correlate  by  comparison, 
and  thus  to  discover  law.  The  primary  impulse  of  the  natural- 
ist is  thus  given  by  the  love  of  nature ;  and  I  believe  that  the 


1  Outlook,  November  IT,  1902. 

2  Science,  II.     Vol.  XIII.,  14-23.     January  4,  1901. 


THE    VALUE   OF  BOTANY  IN  EDUCATION    6? 

scientific  naturalist  should  welcome  every  movement  towards  the 
cultivation  of  general  interest  in  natural  history.  We  may 
therefore  regard  it  as  a  happy  omen  for  the  future  of  our 
science  that  in  every  direction  we  see  the  signs  of  increasing 
interest  in  field  work,  in  nature  study,  and  in  the  teaching  of 
natural  history  in  our  schools." 

In   this  paragraph  which  we  have  quoted  we  find  that  the 
belief  is  expressed  that  a  "  general  interest  in  natural   history  " 
is    to   be    regarded   as   a    "  happy    omen    for   the 
future  "  of  the  science.     But  it  is  more  than  this.    and  Enjoy-68 
It  is  an  equally  happy  omen  for  the  future  of  the   Mainspring 
people.1     Pleasure  and  interest  in  the  facts  of  nat- 
ural history  are  as  real  and  potent  for  the  amelioration  of  the 
life  of  the  amateur  as  of  the  naturalist.     To  be  sure,  of  those 
who  study  botany  only  a  small  proportion  will  become  amateur 
botanists.     The  number  of  those  whose  outlook  will  be  widened 
and  whose  pleasure  will  be  heightened  as  a  result  of  this  study 
is,  however,  greater  ;  and  few  will  altogether  escape  its  influence 
if  we   assume    the  right  kind   of  a  teacher.     Nevertheless,  it 
would  not  be  an  improper  ambition  for  the  teacher  of  botany  so 
to  present  the  subject  as  to  prepare  his  students  in  the  best 
manner  possible  for  good  amateur  work  in  this  field.     To  do 
this  is  no  mean  task  and  requires  the  best  kind  of  teaching, 
and  we  may  safely  say  that  were  this   done  the  work  which 
would  thus  result  would  accomplish  all  the  other  ends  of  the 
course. 

We  are  now  in  a  position  to  see  that,  although  a  direct  con- 
sideration of  the  aesthetic  aspect  of  plants  is  not  contemplated 
as  a  part  of  the  teacher's  work,  the  fact  of  the  emotional  atti- 
tude towards  these  organisms  and  their  relations  to  their  envi- 
ronment, including  man,  is  of  the  highest  importance,  and  its 
recognition  is  of  no  mean  importance  in  deciding  upon  the 

1  For  a  discussion  of  the  value  of  science  to  specialists  in  other  lines 
of  work,  literature  especially,  see  Tolman,  A.  H.,  Natural  Science  in  a 
Literary  Education.  Popular  Science  Monthly,  49 :  98.  September, 
1896. 


68  THE   TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

value  of  a  course  in  botany,  and  upon  the  reason  for  its  intro- 
duction into  the  course  of  study  in  the  secondary  schools. 

Before  leaving  this  part  of  our  argument  we  must  remove  any 
doubt  as  to  our  meaning.  Much  has  been  said,  and  properly, 
"  Sentlmen-  agamst  tne  tendency  in  science  teaching  which  has 
taiism."  been  described  as  sentimentalism.  A  strong  case 
against  this  error  has  been  made  by  Thorndike,1  the  gist  of 
whose  arraignment  is  found  in  the  condemnation  of  the  teach- 
ing of  that  indiscriminate  love  of  animals  and  plants  which  leads 
to  grave  misconception  of  the  relative  values  of  life.  Science 
teaches  us  that  we  should  value  human  life,  health,  and  comfort, 
and  human  progress,  both  material  and  intellectual,  more  highly 
than  the  life  of  any  animal  or  plant.  The  sentimentalism,  there- 
fore, which  refuses  to  take  the  life  of  a  frog  or  of  a  plant,  in 
order  that  a  child  may  get  a  saner  conception  of  life,  is  false. 
But  it  must  also  be  evident  that  an  absence  of  reverence,  a 
true  and  useful  sentiment,  which  leads  a  teacher  to  be  indiffer- 
ent to  the  feelings  of  others,  is  to  be  deplored ;  and  when  the 
obligation  of  the  teacher  to  overcome  prejudices  in  students  by 
thoughtful  and  tactful  means  is  overlooked,  this  is  equally  to 
be  inveighed  against.  The  teacher  of  botany  is  both  at  an  ad- 
vantage and  a  disadvantage,  as  compared  with  the  teacher  of 
zoology,  in  this  case.  The  materials  of  botany  naturally  call 
forth  expressions  of  the  aesthetic  emotions,  and  the  danger  of 
falling  into  meaningless  talk  is  consequently  greater  ;  while 
on  the  other  hand,  since  plants  are  living  things,  the  evident 
absence  of  sentience  —  so  far  as  we  understand  it  —  in  them 
offers  an  opportunity  to  study  living  things  without  keen  distress 
for  the  loss  of  life.  At  the  same  time,  the  latter  fact  offers  no 
excuse  for  a  reckless  waste  of  plant  life  ;  and  the  teacher  will  do 
well  not  to  ignore  the  element  of  sacrifice  and  so  increase  the 
attitude  of  reverence  toward  living  things,  a  quality  which  is  en- 
tirely lacking  in  many  people  of  coarse  sentiment. 


1  Thorndike,   E.    L.,    Sentimentality  in    Science   Teaching.      Educa- 
tional Review,  17  :  57.     January,  1899. 


THE    VALUE   OF  BOTANY  IN  EDUCATION    69 

But  in  spite  of  the  danger  here  recognized  we  must  state  un- 
equivocally that  botany  must  have  its  part  in  that  education  of 
the  future  which  "  will  focus  on  the  feelings,  sentiments,  emo- 
tions, and  try  to  do  something  for  the  heart,  out  of  which  are 
the  issues  of  life."  l 

We  may  also  find  an  argument  for  the  use  of  a  subject  in 
general  education  in  the  nature  and  extent  of  its  informational 

content.     The  usefulness,  therefore,  in  a  narrower 

c   .  -ill  i  ,-  Informational 

sense,    of  its    materials,    the   dependence    ot    man  Content  of 

upon  them,  and  the  ways  and  extent  to  which  they 
touch  upon  human  welfare,  are  the  indices  of  its  educational 
force  in  this  regard.2  The  question  to  be  asked  then,  is,  to 
what  degree  and  in  what  way  do  plants  relate  themselves  to  the 
human  family  and  its  welfare,  and  in  the  answer  to  this  we  may 
find  the  argument  which  we  seek. 

The  fundamental  necessity  of  the  human  race  is  that  of  food. 
Whether  we  regard  the  occupations  of  primitive  man  or  those 
of  the  highest  type  of  civilization,  the  one  constant,  imperative 
demand  is  for  food.  The  earlier  methods  of  food  production 
were  solely  empirical,  a  relatively  scant  population  and  simple 
demands  necessitating  only  crude  methods.  Increase  in  popu- 
lation and  division  of  labor  have  made  necessary 

more  and  more  efficient  methods  of  food  produc-   tance  of  Pho- 
tosynthesis, 
tion  so  as  to  get  the   greatest  quantity  and   best 

quality.  It  has  become,  therefore,  an  increasingly  severe  intel- 
lectual task  to  determine  what  these  methods  are,  and  this  de- 
termination depends  upon  the  knowledge  of  plant  physiology 
and  of  the  relation  of  plants  to  the  soil.  A  most  fundamental 
fact  of  plant  physiology  which  stands  in  relation  to  the  knowl- 
edge of  food  production  is  the  process  of  photosynthesis,  the 
process  by  which  plants,  by  means  of  their  green  coloring  matter, 
or  chlorophyll,  are  able,  in  the  presence  of  sunlight,  to  manufac- 
ture food,  from  which  energy  ma}-  be  obtained  for  the  remaining 


1  Stanley  Hall,  quoted  by  Andrews,  E.  A.,  False  and  True  Criticism 
of  the  Public  School.     Educational  Review,  22:  258.     1901. 

2  See  a  very  valuable  paper  by  Galloway,  B.  T.     1902. 


70  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

physiological  necessities.  Setting  aside  the  possible  behavior  of 
certain  of  the  bacteria,  the  physiology  of  which  is  at  present 
but  little  understood,  we  may  state  that  at  the  present  time  all 
the  energy  expended  by  plants  and  animals,  including  man,  in 
the  physiological  processes  of  their  bodies,  comes  in  the  first 
instance  from  the  sunlight,  and  is  stored  up  by  the  help  of 
chlorophyll  in  the  final  product  of  photosynthesis  —  starch.  To 
have  established  this  fact  is  an  achievement  of  very  great  and 
fundamental  importance,  both  in  the  realm  of  pure  science  and 
in  its  relations  to  the  practical  questions  depending  in  any  way 
upon  the  growth  of  plants.  It  becomes,  therefore,  the  duty  and 
privilege  of  the  botanical  teacher  to  bring  the  pupil  into  the 
possession  of  such  knowledge. 

A  second  discovery  of  botanical  science  of  scarcely  less  weight 
is  that  it  is  possible,  by  the  manipulation  of  bacterial  organisms, 
The  Source  of  to  maintain,  or  indeed  increase  the  store  of  nitrogen 
Nitrogen.  of  tne  so^  jt  nas  for  manv  years  been  realized, 

and  that  long  before  the  remedy  was  worked  out,  that  the 
repeated  growth  of  food  plants  so  depletes  the  nitrogen  content 
of  the  soil  that  it  becomes  in  a  few  years  impossible  to  raise  a 
profitable  crop.  The  difficulty  has  been  partially  met  in  an 
empirical  way  by  methods  of  crop  rotation,  clover,  or  some 
other  suitable  leguminous  plant,  playing  the  role  of  a  constant 
factor  in  the  rotation  series,  and  also  by  adding  to  the  soil  ferti- 
lizers containing  nitrogen  in  some  form.  The  former  method 
was  carried  on  wherever  possible  for  years  in  ignorance  of  the 
exact  conditions,  and  is  of  course  impossible  where,  as  in  some 
soils  of  wide  extent,  the  suitable  legumes  will  not  grow.  The 
latter  method  has  its  limitations  in  the  supply  of  artificial 
fertilizers,  since  the  sources  of  these  cease  sooner  or  later  to 
be  productive.  The  complete  understanding,  both  theoretical 
and  practical,  of  the  behavior  of  nitrogenous  bacteria  offers 
the  only  solution  of  the  problem  thus  presented,  and  when  the 
time  comes,  as  it  will  in  the  near  future,  that  this  knowledge 
is  complete,  as  far  as  practical  demands  are  concerned,  the 
capacity  of  the  soil  for  the  production  of  crops  may  be  in- 


THE    VALUE    OF  BOTANY  IN  EDUCATION    *J\ 

creased  beyond  our  present  dreams.1  Furthermore,  this  is  but 
one  puzzle  of  a  large  group  concerning  the  relations  of  plants  to 
the  soil,  all  of  which  are  before  the  student  of  plant  physiology 
for  solution,  and  upon  which  the  welfare  of  man  depends. 

Again,  and  closely  connected  with  the  general  problem  of 
food  supply  is  that  of  the  improvement  of  crops  by  hybridiza- 
tion and  selection.     Here,  too,  we  find  that  at  an 
early  date  efforts  were  made  to  better  the  products   Hybridiza- 
of  plants,  at  first  unconsciously  and  later  empirically. 
Since  the  fuller  understanding  of  the  facts  of  evolution,   our 
knowledge  has  been  increased  and  clarified  ;  and  within  the  last 
five  years  the  activity  of  students  in  this  direction  has  increased 
in  a  manner  unparalleled  in  the  history  of  botany.     Some  are 
going  in  for  the  more  theoretical  sides  of  the  question  and  some 
for  the  practical  sides,  and  it  is  remarkable  that  both  classes  of 
workers  are  gradually  coming  together  on  common  ground. 

But  the  problem  of  crop  improvement  is  not  only  a  general 
one,  but  one  requiring  a  special  solution  in  each  locality  and 
for  each  kind  of  crop.  It  is  not  the  question  of  raising  the 
best  wheat,  but  the  best  wheat  in  Minnesota  or  Dakota.  The 
botanist  in  one  locality  cannot  necessarily  answer  the  question 
for  one  of  another,  although  common  knowledge  and  mutual 
experiences  contribute  to  the  general  end.  For  all  these 
different  workers,  however,  the  facts  of  evolution,  and  of  selec- 
tion, and  of  the  possible  improvements  of  plant  races  by 
hybridization  —  fundamental  knowledge  however  imperfect,— 
are  the  basis  for  study  and  experiment,  and  such  knowledge  is 
the  common  inheritance,  to  be  in  ignorance  of  which  is  a  mis- 
fortune individually  and  socially  considered. 

ft  will  be  observed,  however,  that  the  work  of  the  plant 
improver  rests  upon  exact  knowledge  of  the  form  Knowledge  of 
and  relationships  of  plants.  Indeed,  a  knowledge  Plant  Forms' 
of  classification  is  fundamental  to  any  broad  understanding  of 


1  See  Moore,  G.  T.,  Bacteria  and  the  Nitrogen  Problem.      Yearbook 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  p  p .  33  3-342 .     1 902 . 


72  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

plant  problems  and  their  solution.  For  a  student,  therefore,  to 
have  any  fair  conception  of  these  matters,  it  is  not  enough  to 
know  something  of  their  physiology,  but  also  of  their  external 
appearances  and  relationships,  —  in  short,  of  the  basis  of  their 
classification.  Such  information  is  not  alone  useful  in  the 
direction  above  indicated,  but  also  in  many  other  practical 
matters. 

For  example,  there  is  no  question  as  to  the  value  of  a  public 
park  in  a  crowded  city,  or  indeed  in  a  city  of  any  kind.  But 
suppose,  in  the  planting  of  a  large  area  of  valuable  park  land 
that  in  the  absence  of  a  large  proportion  of  exact  information 
concerning  plant  forms  the  planting  was  carried  out  by  guess- 
work. What  would  be  the  result  in  the  waste  of  time  and 
money  and  in  the  inferiority  of  ultimate  results  is  only  partially 
evident,  but  it  would  be  too  great  to  justify  such  a  course  to  any 
but  a  very  slight  extent.  But  such  a  problem  is  the  same  as  that 
which  confronts  every  one  who  has  even  so  little  as  a  window 
garden  to  plan  for ;  for  this  much  is  a  considerable  task  for 
most  people.1  It  is  not  too  much,  therefore,  to  say  that  the 
value  of  the  information  in  the  direction  of  knowing  what  plants 
to  grow  and  how  to  care  for  them  justifies  in  part  the  use  of 
botany  in  education.  Of  course  we  must  believe  that  much  of 
such  information  may  well  have  been  obtained  in  the  elementary 
school.  When  this  is  not  the  case,  it  should  not  be  neglected 
in  the  high  school ;  and  in  any  case  the  work  here  should 
amplify  the  knowledge  gained  earlier  by  the  application  of  broad 
principles. 

Not  only  is  some  knowledge  of  plant  relationship  valuable 
and  necessary  to  the  understanding  to  some  degree  of  the 
importance  and  significance  of  the  science  of  botany  as  related 
to  man,  but  it  is  of  itself  a  large  and  ennobling  idea.  It  is 
knowledge  of  the  highest  type,  and  the  kind  which  helps  the 
mind  to  conceptions  of  nature  which  are  impossible  without  it. 
To  have  information  of  this  kind,  coupled  with  the  knowledge 


1  Harshberger,  J.  W.,  Home  and  School  Window  Gardens.     Educa- 
tion, 18:555.     May,  1898. 


7 HE    VALUE   OF  BOTANY  IN  EDUCATION    73 

of  the  method  of  thought  involved,  gives  us  intellectual  enjoy- 
ment, and  in  this  the  informational  and  aesthetic  values  of  the 
study  overlap. 

But  plants,  while  all-important  in  their  relation  to  food  supply, 
and  while  the  understanding  of  their  structure  and  physiology  is 
the  only  sure  basis  for  the  development  of  ability  to  Plants  ^ 
increase  their  value  to  us,  are  vastly  important  in  JSSr^teri- 
other  directions.  In  them  are  the  sources  of  him-  als  than  Food, 
dreds  of  materials  for  the  manufactures  and  for  the  healing  of 
bodily  ills.  Among  the  plants,  too,  are  those  by  whose  agency 
many  of  the  arts  are  made  possible,  such  as  the  preparation  of 
cheese,  hemp,  and  a  long  list  of  others  ;  and  among  the  plants, 
again,  are  found  the  organisms  which  stand  in  causal  relation  to 
many  plant  and  animal  diseases.  May  we  not  in  all  truth  say 
that  for  a  boy  or  girl  to  pass  out  of  the  high  school  into  life, 
where  the  real  struggle  begins,  without  a  fair  appreciation  of 
these  matters  is  unfortunate  ;  and  may  we  not  believe  that  such 
appreciation  means  the  broadening  of  the  outlook  and  strength- 
ening of  the  moral  and  intellectual  fibre  ? 

Without  unduly  prolonging  the  presentation  of  these  and 
similar  claims,  we  may  point  out  that  the  science  of  botany  is 
in  its  informational  content,  both  in  extent  and  kind,  second  to 
no  other  science.  It  touches  upon  human  interests  funda- 
mentally at  every  point,  and  these  are  of  such  a  kind  that  to  be 
ignorant  of  their  relations  to  botany  is  to  be  robbed  of  that 
knowledge  which  throws  light  upon  literature,  the  arts  and  the 
manufactures,  and  upon  the  conditions  under  which  alone  the 
human  race  may  prosper.  The  citizen  who  is  without  a  fair 
degree  of  such  knowledge  is  unable  to  act  intelligently  in  his 
relation  to  public  affairs,  and  the  efforts  of  the  more  enlight- 
ened classes  toward  the  amelioration  of  the  conditions  of  life 
can  find  but  scanty  support  in  the  citizen  of  this  type.  A  plan 
of  general  education,  therefore,  which  neglects  botany  neglects 
one  of  the  subjects  which  Herbert  Spencer  describes  as  having 
"  transcendent  value."  x 


1  Education :  Intellectual,  Moral,  and  Physical,  p.  95. 


74  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

We  have   adduced   two   arguments  for    the  introduction  of 

botany  into  the  high-school  course,  the  one  from  the  aesthetic, 

the  second  from  the  informational  aspects  of  bot- 

vaiueof          any.     We  will   now  consider  a  third  argument  to 

the  same  end,  —  that,  namely,  which  is  based  upon 

its  disciplinary  value.     This  may  be  sought  in  those  peculiarities 

of  botanical  science  as  such  which  differentiate  it  from  other 

sciences,  and  in  those  characteristics  of  the  subject  which  render 

it  of  special  service  in  the    presentation    of  particular   topics, 

what  in  other  words  we  may  call  its  pedagogical  advantages. 

It  has  been  shown  in  the  first  chapter  that  those  characters 
of  educational  import  which  distinguish  a  particular  branch  of 
science  are  due  to  its  content  of  materials,  and  not  to  its  method 
of  thought,  since  the  latter  is  common  to  all  sciences  and  to 
every-day  life.1  To  attempt,  therefore,  to  distinguish  between 
zoology  and  botany  in  regard  to  their  general  values  as  disci- 
pline is  unnecessary  to  our  purpose. 

But  it  is,  however,  also  true  that  a  given  science  may,  be- 
cause of  peculiarities  inherent  in  the  materials,  be  more  useful 
than  others  in  illustrating  particular  phases  of  the  scientific 
method.  It  may  for  the  same  reason  be  of  special  use  for  the 
study  of  certain  parts  of  our  knowledge,  and  therefore  for 
making  this  knowledge  real  to  the  student. 
.  With  regard  to  the  first  of  these  considerations  it  may  fairly 
be  claimed  that  botany  lends  itself  to  an  especial  degree  to  the 
Botany  Espe-  teacher  and  student  for  the  study  of  physiology  by 
fo^Experi?1  tne  experimental  method.  The  materials  are  on 
mentation.  tne  wno|e  easier  to  obtain  and  to  keep  in  good  con- 
dition, and  illustrate  most  of  the  physiological  processes  of 
animals  and  plants  equally  well.  Plants  are  more  easily  con- 
trolled than  animals,  and  experimentation  with  them  does  not 
offend  the  sensibilities  so  easily.  Furthermore,  the  photosyn- 
thetic  activity  of  green  plants  offers  a  subject  for  beautifully 
simple  and  conclusive  experiments  which  are  capable  of 


1  Huxley,  T.  H.,  Science  and  Education,  p.  45. 


THE    VALUE   OF  BOTANY  IN  EDUCATION     75 

thorough  logical  control.  To  be  sure  the  reactions  of  plants 
are  not  usually  sudden,  and  certain  phases  of  the  natural  histoiy 
of  animals  appear  to  have  advantages  in  this ;  for  without 
doubt  the  quick  responses  of  animals  relieve  the  pupil  of  the 
exercise  of  patience,  which  in  plant  study  is  rather  more  neces- 
sary, while  on  the  other  hand  the  slowness  of  plant  reactions  un- 
doubtedly gives  more  opportunity  for  reflection.  The  work 
with  animals  is,  however,  on  the  whole  of  a  less  fundamental 
character,  while  their  richness  of  variety  of  mechanisms  consti- 
tutes a  mass  of  materials  which  render  them  in  this  respect 
more  attractive  for  study.  This  is  illustrated  in  the  matter  of 
respiration.  The  mechanical  side  of  the  operation  in  plants  is 
reduced  to  the  simplest  conditions,  while  in  animals  the  me- 
chanics are  so  varied  and  complex  that  to  the  student's  vision 
the  real  nature  of  the  operation  may  frequently  become  clouded, 
interesting  as  the  mechanisms  are.  In  plants,  however,  the 
anatomical  aspect  is  so  simple  that  the  student  is  thereby  brought 
more  directly  into  contact  with  the  physiological  operation. 
These  features  of  the  study  of  botany  are  worth  mention,  not  so 
much  to  show  any  absolute  advantage  over  zoology,  but  rather 
to  emphasize  the  importance  of  making  the  most  of  those  parts 
of  the  subject  which  have  special  advantages. 

Again,  germinating  seeds  and  young  seedlings  are  most  ex- 
cellently adapted  for  illustrating  various  physiological  processes 

by  experimentation.     Materials  are  so  cheap  that 

Usefulness  of 

the  cost  is  a  negligible  factor.     Fundamental  facts   Seedlings  for 
,  ......  .  ,.  ..  Experiment. 

about  irritability,  adaptation,  expenditure  of  energy, 

need  and  use  of  food,  and  respiration,  are  susceptible  of  conclu- 
sive proof  with  the  minimum  of  apparatus  and  most  simple 
conditions.  Some  teachers  of  botany  have  felt,  with  a  degree 
of  justification,  that  work  with  seeds  appears  to  students  of  the 
high-school  age  as  rather  beneath  their  dignity.  And  so,  in 
truth,  it  is  in  the  hands  of  a  teacher  that  does  not  know  how  to 
get  the  most  out  of  experimentation,  by  enforcing  a  rigid  appli- 
cation of  methods  of  thought  as  applied  thereto.  We  are  in- 
clined to  think  that  when  a  subject  does  not  compel  the  respect 


76  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

of  the  student  it  is  so  because  of  the  teacher's  lack  of  compre- 
hension rather  than  the  fault  of  the  materials.  A  bit  of  bark 
covered  with  Pleurococcus  in  the  hands  of  such  a  teacher  would 
probably  be  as  meaningless. 

The  relation  of  plants  to  water  is  another  topic  for  simple  ex- 
perimentation which   offers   a   splendid    field   for    developing 

thought  power,  and  further  is  capable  of  experi- 
Relationof  ...  .  ,  ,  f  ,  .  . 

Plants  to          merits  which  may  be  graded  from  the  very  simple 

to  the  very  difficult,  with  or  without  the  use  of  the 
microscope.  This  subject  has  attracted  a  good  deal  of  attention 
of  late  because  of  the  prominent  place  it  has  been  given  in  lead- 
ing text-books,  and  some  very  simple  and  beautiful  experiments 
have  been  devised.  We  shall  discuss  these  more  in  detail 
farther  on  ;  our  object  here  is  again  to  emphasize  the  great  im- 
portance and  ease  of  this  phase  of  botany  and  its  correlated 
educational  advantages. 

Another  subject,  as  yet  generally  neglected  but  full  of  mean- 
ing, is  that  of  digestion.     It  is  possible  with  appropriate  plant 
materials  to  demonstrate  clearly  with  little  cost  of 
time  and  trouble  all  the  essential  features  of  a  pro- 
cess, the  understanding  of  which  illuminates  the  knowledge  of 
the  analogous  process  in  the  human  body  in  a  remarkable  way. 
Not  only  do  plants  serve  a  very  useful  turn  in  making  simple 
experiments  in  fundamental  physiology  easily  possible,  but  they 

offer  materials  which  for  the  study  of  homology  is 
Advantages  ....  • ' 

forMorpho-      unsurpassed,  if  equalled,  by  zoological    materials. 

It  is  true  enough  that  plant  morphology  has  be- 
come formal  and  comparatively  meaningless.  But  in  recent 
years  the  study  has  become  revivified  by  the  emphasis  which 
has  been  laid  on  the  study  of  living  plants,  and  by  the  removal 
of  subjective  notions  which  have  been  allowed  to  grow  up. 
Instead  of  accepting  the  dictum  that  plants  have  a  definite 
number  of  elemental  organs,  of  which  all  others  are  modifica- 
tions, a  formal  view  handed  down  from  Goethe,1  we  have  come 


1  The  teacher  should  acquaint  himself  with  modern  morphological 
ideas  by  reading  Goebel's   Organography,  the  translation   of  which  is 


THE    VALUE   OF  BOTANY  IN  EDUCATION    77 

to  understand  that  these  organs  are  not  always  present,  nor  are 
they  the  only  categories  of  organs  which  a  plant  may  have. 
The  distinctions  between  the  older  and  newer  morphology  are 
not,  however,  absolute,  but  they  certainly  stand  in  contrast  when 
examined,1  and  the  most  striking  feature  of  the  contrast  is  to  be 
found  in  the  more  vital,  dynamic  conception  of  plants  charac- 
teristic of  the  newer  morphology.  The  advantages  offered  by 
plants  in  the  study  of  morphology  are  to  be  found  in  the  ease 
with  which  an  experimental  study  of  the  uses  and  activities  of 
homologous  parts  may  be  made.  From  such  work  it  is  learned 
that  the  physiological  values  of  corresponding  parts  may  vary 
and  that  corresponding  structural  differences  exist.  These  facts 
serve  to  illustrate  the  fundamental  biological  principle  that 
changes  of  the  functions  of  organs  are  accompanied  by  corre- 
sponding changes  in  their  form,  a  conception  of  the  greatest 
worth  in  attempting  to  explain  the  morphology  of  organisms. 

For  the  purpose  of  such  experimentation  no  materials  are 
better  adapted  than,  for  example,  developing  seedlings,  in 
which  the  homologies  are  few  and  apparent,  and  in  which  it  is 
easy  to  find  wide  variations  of  habit  and  function  with  all  pos- 
sible intermediate  conditions.  Simple  problems  of  this  kind 
may  be  followed  by  others  of  gradually  increasing  difficulty,  in 
the  solution  of  which  not  only  are  the  powers  of  observation 
and  experiment  exercised,  but  the  immediate  use  of  observation 
in  thought  is  made  possible. 

In  the  opening  chapter  occasion  was  taken  to  point  out  that 
perhaps  the  most  subtle  sociological  problem  which  we  have  to 

face  is  that  which,  complex  and  elusive  as  it  is,  rests 

Social  Prob- 
in  the  first  instance  upon  the  simple  fact  of  repro-   lem  Relating 

duction.     The  problem  is,  what  may  formal  educa- 
tion do  toward  the  raising  of  the  moral  tone  of  the  community. 
It  is  lamentably  true  that  the  matters  which  concern  life  in  the 


nearing  completion  (Oxford  University  Press),  and  Spencer's  Principles 
of  Biology. 

1  See   Ganong,    W.    F.,   The    Cardinal    Principles    of    Morphology. 
Botanical  Gazette,  31  :  426-434.     June,  1901. 


78  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

most  intimate  way,  which  when  understood  aright  may  make 
for  human  progress  and  happiness,  may  and  do  make  for  deg- 
radation and  misery  incalculable  and  unthinkable.  This  is  not 
the  place  for  a  disquisition  upon  the  social  good  and  evil 
related  to  sex,  but  it  is  the  place  to  point  out  that,  although 
the  problem  is  ethical,  psychological,  and  sociological,  and 
therefore  does  not  fall  wholly  within  the  province  of  biology, 
it  nevertheless  has  its  biological  aspect,  and  that  this  in  prac- 
tice is  mainly  educational.  The  word  reform  is  in  no  great 
favor  with  the  biologist,  and  he  looks  askance  at  heal-alls,  for 
experience  teaches  him  that  betterment  is  a  very  slow  process  ; 
and  the  more  complex  and  hidden  the  evil  the  slower  its 
eradication.  But  he  and  the  educator  are  one  in  the  .opinion 
that  there  is  no  safeguard  of  the  mind  and  body  more  potent 
than  knowledge.  And  while  this  is  contested  by  many  who 
mistake  ignorance  for  innocence,  it  is  not  our  province  here  to 
disabuse  them.  The  educator  must,  however,  reckon  with  the 
facts  of  prejudice  and  of  the  force  of  custom ;  and,  doing  so, 
he  must  determine  what  course  of  action  to  take. 

In  this  as  in  other  matters  concerning  human  welfare,  we  are 
forced  to  an  issue  on  the  question  whether  we  shall  let  chil- 
dren grow  up  in  ignorance  of  certain  facts  and  relations,  and, 
relying  upon  the  chances  that  things  will  take  care  of  themselves 
largely,  depend  upon  general  precept  and  more  or  less  exem- 
plary ensamples;  or  whether  we  shall  make  the  knowledge 
which  every  one  should  have  the  common  property  of  youth, 
placing  our  faith  in  the  exact  and  predetermined  method  of 
teaching,  rather  than  shirk  this  responsibility.  It  is  not  for 
a  moment  to  be  doubted  that  in  every  so-called  practical  con- 
cern of  life  the  second  of  these  alternatives  would  be  adopted. 
When  we  prepare  a  child  for  business  we  give  him  knowledge 
of  the  principles  and  practices  of  commerce  ;  if  we  wish  him 
to  be  a  good  lawyer  or  physician  or  a  skilful  artisan  we  open 
to  him  all  the  knowledge  upon  which  his  success  depends. 
What  the  State  needs,  however,  above  all  things  is  good  citizen- 
ship, good  fatherhood  and  motherhood,  good  men  and  women, 


THE    VALUE   OF  BOTANY  IN  EDUCATION    79 

but  do  we  in  preparation  for  these  give  them  even  the  funda- 
mental facts  of  needful  knowledge  ? 

What,  then,  may  botany  do  to  meet  this  demand?  It  is 
plainly  the  business  of  biology  to  teach  the  fundamentals  of  the 
whole  scope  of  the  study.  On  the  physiological  side,  the 
knowledge  of  reproduction  is  fundamental  and  may  not  be 
ignored.  Yet  to  do  this  without  offence  to  prejudice  and  good 
feeling  is  not  so  easy  as  to  see  the  duty  of  doing  it.  It  becomes 
necessary  to  bring  the  essential  facts  of  reproduction  to  the 
attention  and  understanding  of  high-school  pupils  so  that  they 
shall  view  them  as  a  normal  part  of  knowledge.  Botany  espe- 
Assuming  the  personal  factor  in  the  teacher  to  be 
all  that  is  desired,  the  materials  found  among  plants 
are  especially  well  adapted  to  this  end.  This  can  be  tiont 
done  in  a  mixed  class  with  full  propriety,  and  with  so  much  the 
more  normal  a  result,  by  approaching  the  problem  through  the 
facts  of  vegetative  reproduction,  followed  by  the  sexual  method 
as  seen  in  such  a  form  as  Spirogyra  in  which  the  gametes  are 
practically  equivalent.  The  next  step  is  to  the  condition  of 
heterogamy,  and  the  more  fundamental  of  secondary  sexual 
characters  are  then  noted.  The  absence  of  highly  specialized 
secondary  sexual  characters  makes  it  easy  to  avoid  any  pointed 
or  suggestive  discussion,  while  the  main  facts  are  sufficiently 
obvious. 

Let  it  be  understood  that  it  is  the  biological  aspect  of  the 
matter  alone  with  which  the  teacher  has  to  do.  His  duty  may 
be  said  to  be  done  when  he  has  made  this  phase  of  physiology 
as  clear  as  he  is  expected  to  make  other  facts.  For  the  rest  we 
place  our  trust  in  the  belief  that  right  and  pure  ideas  will  assert 
themselves,  and  that  the  mind  of  the  pupil  will  be  the  more  frank 
and  open  to  the  exercise  of  moral  living. 

We  have  attempted  to  show  that  the  value  of  botany  in  edu- 
cation is  threefold,  corresponding  to  the  aesthetic,  in- 
Summary, 
formational,  and  disciplinary  aspects  of  the  subject. 

People  are  more  or  less  interested  in  plants  and  their  be- 
havior, and  get  pleasure  from  their  contemplation.  But 


80  THE   TEACHING   OF  BOTANY     . 

wider  knowledge  brings  more  materials  for  the  mind  to  work 
with,  and  a  heightened  pleasure.  As  pure  interest  and  enjoy- 
ment are  the  mainspring  of  human  activity  in  general,  as  they 
are  of  the  naturalist  in  particular,  to  increase  the  interest  of  the 
people  in  botany  makes  for  more  pleasurable  and  better  living. 
The  danger  of  "  sentimentalism  "  is  pointed  out,  as  well  as 
the  demand  that  botany  shall  do  its  part  in  the  amelioration 
of  human  life  in  the  higher  sense. 

It  is  further  shown  that  the  extent  to  which  the  welfare  of 
man  is  dependent  upon  the  activities  of  plants  is  the  measure 
of  the  informational  value  of  botany.  Some  of  the  more  im- 
portant relations  are  pointed  out,  among  which  are  the  depend- 
ence of  man  upon  the  photosynthetic  activity  of  plants,  and 
upon  certain  plants  which  become  agents  for  making  available 
the  nitrogen  of  the  air. 

Moreover,  in  the  study  of  botany  there  are  certain  disciplinary 
values,  which  are  peculiar  to  it  in  the  extent  of  their  practical 
application.  It  is  especially  valuable  for  the  study  of  funda- 
mental physiology  by  virtue  of  the  nature  of  its  materials,  and 
lends  itself  peculiarly  well  to  experimentation.  It  has  certain 
advantages,  due  to  the  nature  of  its  materials,  in  the  study  of 
simple  morphology  from  a  physiological  aspect.  Especially  em- 
phasized is  its  usefulness  in  discovering  to  the  young  student 
the  fundamental  facts  of  reproduction  in  a  clear,  unhampered 
way ;  as  is  also  the  duty  of  the  teacher  in  doing  this. 

For  these  three  general  reasons,  it  is  argued  that  the  value  of 
botany  is  of  definite  and  peculiar  value  in  education,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  general  value  which  it  possesses  in  common  with 
zoology  and  other  sciences. 


CHAPTER   IV 

.PRINCIPLES    DETERMINING   THE    CONTENT    OP   A 
BOTANICAL    COURSE 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Bessey,  C.  E.     Discussion  reported  in  Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  p.  953.     1895. 

Bergen,  J.  Y.  Botany  as  an  Alternative  in  College  Admission  Re- 
quirements. EDUCATIONAL  REVIEW,  n  :  452.  1896. 

Campbell,  D.  H.  Elementary  Botany  in  the  High  School  and 
College.  SCHOOL  AND  COLLEGE,  i :  211.  1892. 

Cook,  O.  F.      On   Biological  Text-Books  and  Teachers.     SCIENCE, 

II.,  9:  541-545-     APril>  l899- 

Ganong,  W.  F.  Advances  in  Science  Teaching.  SCIENCE,  II.,  9: 
96-100.  20  January,  1899. 

Ganong,  W.  F.  Suggestions  for  an  Attempt  to  Secure  a  Standard 
College  Entrance  Option  in  Botany.  SCIENCE,  II.,  13:  611-616.  19 
April,  1901. 

Ganong,  W.  F.  The  Teaching  Botanist.  New  York.  The  Mac- 
millan  Co.  1899. 

Ganong,  W.  F.,  and  Lloyd,  F.  E.  Third  Report  of  a  Committee 
appointed  by  the  Society  for  Plant  Morphology  and  Physiology  at  Balti- 
more, December  28,  1900,  to  consider  the  Formulation  of  a  Standard 
College  Entrance  Option  in  Botany.  SCHOOL  SCIENCE.  May,  1902. 

Macbride,  T.  H.  Botany  :  How  Much  and  When.  Read  before 
the  Iowa  State  Teachers'  Association.  December  28,  1898. 

Macmillan,  C.  Current  Methods  in  Botanical  Instruction.  EDUCA- 
TION, 12:  460.  April,  1892. 

von  Sachs,  Julius.     History  of  Botany.     Oxford,  1890. 

Underwood,  L.  M.  The  Study  of  Botany  in  High  Schools.  JOUR- 
NAL OF  PEDAGOGY,  9:  No.  2.  April,  1898.  (Contr.  Dept.  Bot.  Col. 
Univ.  144.) 

"Wager,  H.  The  Teaching  of  Botany  in  Schools.  SCHOOL  WORLD, 
3:  422.  1901. 

Botany  for  Schools.  AMERICAN  JOURNAL  OF  EDUCATION,  4:  168- 
175.  1829. 

IN  the  foregoing  chapter  we  have  sought  for  botany  a  place 
in  secondary  education  for  the  broad  reasons  of  its  aesthetic, 
informational,  and  disciplinary  values.  It  becomes  our  duty, 
assuming  that  botany  shall  have  such  a  place,  to  determine 

6 


82  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

the  principles  underlying  the  selection  of  the  content  of  the 
course.  That  this  content  shall  be,  in  detail,  the  same  for 
all  high  schools  we  would  hardly  claim,  although  we  give 
adherence  to  the  view  that  a  generally  accepted  objective 
standard  is  desirable  for  several  reasons. 

Botany  must  establish  its  right  to  a  part  in  secondary  edu- 
cation equally  with  other  branches    of  study.     Those   studies 

which  are  best  established  have  generally  accepted 
Value  of  an  .  .  ..  fe  .  r  ,  , 

Objective         standards  of  the  quality  and  quantity  of  work  to  be 

expected.  Although  the  mere  acceptance  of  such 
a  uniform  standard  does  not  establish  the  educational  value  and 
position  of  a  study,  at  least  no  study  which  claims  for  itself 
such  a  place  can  be  independent  of  the  necessity  of  establish- 
ing a  standard.  The  value  of  a  uniform  standard,  then,  in  this 
regard  is  to  be  found  in  the  general  agreement  thereby  estab- 
lished as  to  what  botany  has  in  it  of  general  educational  value. 
A  uniform  standard  is,  in  essence,  a  statement  of  what  general 
knowledge  botany  contains  which  may  be  regarded  as  the 

best  intellectual  inheritance  within  its  limits,  and 
A  Statement  ,  ,  r  .  ,  _  ,  ,  ,  ,  . 

oflnteiiectual  what  therefore  is  best  for  general  knowledge  and 

culture.  If  any  subject  has  a  content  of  this  na- 
ture it  ought  to  be  possible  to  determine  what  it  is,  although 
it  is  not  necessarily  an  easy  task,  since  the  relative  newness 
of  a  subject  and  consequent  uriformed  general  opinion  are 
obstacles,  in  some  degree,  to  the  solution  of  the  question. 
Nevertheless,  botanists  on  the  one  hand  and  educators  in 
general  on  the  other  hand  have  cause  for  congratulation  that 
this  task  has  been  partially  done,  and  the  results  have  been 
embodied  in  a  report,  now  accessible  to  all  interested,  upon 
a  college  entrance  option  which  represents  an  aggregate  of 
opinion  derived  from  many  and  wide  sources.1  The  contents 
of  this  report  will  receive  consideration  later. 

That  this  result  is,  in  a  peculiar  sense,  of  very  great  value  to 
botany  as  a  science  on  the  one  hand  and  to  education  in  gen- 


1  Ganong,  W.  F.,  and  Lloyd,  F.  E.    Third  Report  of  a  Committee,  etc. 


CONTENT  OF  A    BOTANICAL    COURSE          83 

eral  on  the  other  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  botany  has  had 
a  very  significant  history  in  the  annals  of  education.1  Its 
history  is  unique  in  the  circumstance  that  of  all  the  phases  of 

botanical  study  which  are  necessary  and  useful  in 

,          .         ,  ,  .       ,  Great  Need  in 

education,  but  one  has  received  any  great  amount  Botany  of 

of  attention,  to  the  practical  exclusion  of  the  rest  form  Agree- 
without  making  good  the  usurpation  by  the  use  of 
the  right  scientific  methods.  We  refer  to  the  fact  that  classi- 
fication of  the  higher  plants  has  been  until  recently  the  be-all 
and  end-all  of  botanical  study.  What  the  position  and  value 
of  this  part  of  botany  is  in  education  we  shall  discuss  beyond. 
Here  it  is  sufficient  to  point  out  the  result  for  which  this 
singular  state  of  affairs  is  in  large  part  responsible.  This  is, 
that  botany  is  usually  thought  to  be  a  mere  aesthetic  exercise, 
suitable  only  for  girls.  This  idea  we  can  trace  back  in  Amer- 
ican education  as  far  as  1829,  when  a  contributor  to  a  lead- 
ing journal  of  education  2  wrote  that  botany  is  peculiarly  fitted 
for  girls'  schools,  and  is  admirably  adapted  to  the  tastes, 
feelings,  and  capacities  of  females,  "  as  is  demonstrated  by  the 
fact  that  the  majority  of  our  botanists  are  females."  Ludicrous 
as  this  idea  seems  to  those  whose  experience  has  taught  them 
that  as  for  difficulty  there  is  nothing  to  choose  between  botany 
and  zoology,  it  is  nevertheless  a  real  and  not  imaginary  state  of 
affairs  that  botany  to-day  is  reaping  a  harvest  from  the  dissemi- 
nation of  this  impression.  Both  such  misconception  and  con- 
sequent one-sided  and  perfunctory  teaching,  if  it  can  be  called 
teaching,  have  been  the  cause  for  the  widespread  notion  that 
botany  is  a  sort  of  play,  with  a  quasi-scientific  aspect,  reserved 
for  those  intellectually  incompetent  persons  who  with  idle  time 
on  their  hands  have  nothing  better  to  do  than  to  acquire  the 
simulacra  of  knowledge.  It  is  this  sort  of  thing  thai  has  won 
the  undisguised  contempt  of  people  with  wits,  and  we  would 
beseech  those  who  have  the  issues  of  sound  education  at 
heart  to  continue  the  lashings  which  from  time  to  time  they 


1  Macmillan,  C.,  '92. 

2  American  Journal  of  Education,  4:  168-175.     1829. 


84  THE   TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

have  bestowed  upon  those  who  take  such  a  superficial  view  of 
botanical  education.1 

It  is  frequently  acknowledged  by  disinterested  persons  that 
they  hold  this  unfortunate  opinion  about  botany,  and  it  is  clear 
that  they  got  it  in  their  early  education  when  the  extent  of  their 
efforts  at  intellectual  work  based  upon  plants  consisted  in  pick- 
ing a  few  flowers  to  pieces  and  groping  about  for  suitable  names 
to  attach  to  them. 

In  view,  therefore,  of  such  facts,  and  facts  they  are,  it  is  plainly 
the  duty  of  those  who  are  responsible  for  the  credit  of  botanical 
teaching  that  an  end  shall  be  put  to  this  anomalous  condition  of 
things.  This  can  be  done  by  insistence  upon  proper  training  of 
teachers,  and  by  presenting  to  school  authorities  and  to  the 
public  at  large,  a  carefully  considered,  generally  accepted  form- 
ulation of  what  they  believe  to  be  the  true  content  of  botany  for 
secondary  education.  The  full  understanding  and  recognition 
of  such  a  formula  is  the  great  desideratum  of  botany  at  present, 
but  one  which,  the  facts  warrant  us  to  believe,  will  be  satisfied  in 
the  near  future.  It  will  then  remain  for  the  teachers  through- 
out the  country  to  live  up  to  the  standard. 

Furthermore,  a  third  reason  for  the  formulation  of  a  standard 
in  botany  is  seen  in  the  necessity  of  arranging  a  graded  series  of 
studies  in  science  from  the  kindergarten  to  the  college.2 

The  sciences  in  elementary  schools  take  the  form  of  nature 
study,  and  as  such  should  contribute  an  adequate  preparation 

for  the  work  of  the   high  schools.     There  should, 
Need  of  Graded 

Work  in  therefore,  be  no  profitless  duplication  of  studies, 
Science.  .  . 

either  in  materials  or  in  the  nature  of  their  study. 

If,  then,  a  definite  standard  of  what  shall  be  the  botany  of 
the  secondary  school  is  generally  accepted,  and  if  such  a  stand- 
ard gives  detailed  information  as  to  the  scope  and  nature  of  the 
work,  the  remaining  problem  is  to  do  those  things  in  elemen- 


1  An   excellent   editorial  touching   this  and  similar  conceptions   ap- 
pears in  the  New  York  Times1  Saturday  Review  of  Art  and  Literature 
for  May  31,  1902. 

2  Ganong,  W.  F.,  Advances  in  Science  Teaching. 


CONTENT  OF  A    BOTANICAL   COURSE          85 

tary  education  which  shall  serve  at  once  its  aims,  and  as  prepara- 
tion for  the  more  definite  study  of  the  separate  sciences  in  the 
high  school.  Thus  may  the  demand  for  a  uniform,  graded 
course  of  instruction  be  satisfied,  and  the  practical  equivalence 
of  botany  and  of  science  with  other  fields  of  study  be  brought 
up  to  the  now  generally  acknowledged  theoretical  equivalence. 

Another  value  of  formulating  a  standard  of  this  kind  is  the 
means  it  affords  for  the  mutual  information  of  botanists  and 
teachers  as  to  each  other's  views.     In  this  way  the  differences 
of  opinion   are  argued  about,  experiences  compared  and  all 
possible  facts  bearing  upon  the  subject  are  brought  value  of  a 
out.     Some    differences    of  opinion   are    thus   re-   Ug4?^111 
moved,  while  others  are  justified  and  remain  as  a  Views. 
goad  to  further  research  into  the  reasons  for  them.     There  is 
necessarily  some  compromise,  but  concessions  should  not  be 
made  for  the  sake  of  peace.     Differences  should  be  looked 
at  honestly  and  removed  only  upon  a  clear  understanding  of 
the  problems  they  represent,  and  upon  the  mutual  agreement 
that  the  problems  are  fairly  solved.     Such  a  standard   serves 
also  to   hold  before  intending  teachers  an  index 
of  the  amount  and  quality  of  their  teaching.     It  tionof 
will   forbid    one-sidedness    both    in    method   and 
materials,  and  what  is   still   more  important,  it  will   demand 
adequate  preparation  for  teaching,   without  which  all  attempt 
at  a  betterment  of  botany  in  secondary  education  will  be  of 
little  avail.     This  sort  of  service  has  been  done  from  time  to 
time    by  thoroughly   good   text-books    for   secondary  schools. 
The  authors  of  these  books  have  been  men  of  reputation  and 
authority  and  with  genuine    interest  in  elementary  education 
in  botany.     Concerning  such  works  we  shall  have  more  to  say. 

But  such  standards  as  are  generally  accepted  are,  because  of 
their  formulated  character,  not  without  their  drawbacks,  due 
largely,  however,  to  a  misconception  of  their  uses. 

There  is  the  tendency  toward  the  making  of  text-   Accepted 

Standards. 
books  which  contain  just  what  the  standard  calls 

for,  and  with  it  the  tendency  to  use  these  books  in  cramming 


86  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

for  examinations.  The  work  then  becomes  mechanical.  Things 
are  remembered,  but  no  point  of  view  or  method  of  thought  is 
gained.  These  bad  results  have  been  evident  for  a  long  time 
in  England,  where  the  examination  system  has  attained  a  high 
degree  of  false  importance.  The  danger  in  America  is  not, 
however,  very  great,  since  the  standard  as  such  need  not  be 
known  except  to  teachers,  and  since  the  numbers  of  those  who 
qualify  for  entrance  to  college,  while  constantly  on  the  increase, 
will  never  constitute  a  very  large  proportion  of  those  who  have 
to  remain  content  with  high-school  work.  The  danger  may  be 
further  offset  by  a  thoroughgoing  effort  to  shape  the  questions 
of  examinations  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  the  candidate  use  his 
knowledge  in  answering  them,  rather  than  to  call  for  a  cate- 
gorical answer  of  a  number  of  facts  held  in  the  memory.  Such 
boards  of  examiners  as  the  College  Examination  Board  of  the 
Middle  States  and  Maryland  have  it  in  their  prerogative  and 
power  to  do  a  great  deal  toward  enforcing  the  right  kind  of 
instruction  by  insisting  upon  the  careful  formulation  of  ques- 
tions to  the  end  of  calling  forth  the  best  thought- 
of  Proper  effort  of  the  student.  This  is  true  also  of  the  work 
of  the  teacher.  It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that 
he  shall  be  skilled  in  questioning,  in  doing  which  he  should 
always  keep  in  mind  the  principle  that,  at  every  turn,  the  pupil 
shall  be  compelled  so  to  arrange  his  facts  that  they  shall  stand 
in  clear  logical  relation  to  his  generalizations  and  inferences. 
This  applies  to  the  conducting  of  laboratory  work  as  well  as 
to  the  quiz.  We  shall  return  again  to  the  form  and  uses  of 
questions  in  botanical  work. 

For  such  a  large  country  as  America,  again,  it  is  not  possible, 
and  if  it  were,  it  would  be  unprofitable  to  expect  the  accep- 
tance of  a  detailed  standard,  for  the  reason  that 
Possible  Sup- 
pression of  In-  the  conditions  here  and  there  are  widely  differ- 
dividuality. 

ent.     Ana   obviously  a   great    hindrance   is   to   be 

found  in  the  wide  difference  of  floras.  The  teacher  should, 
however,  know  the  flora  of  his  own  region,  and  should  use  the 
materials  available  for  study,  rather  than  attempt  to  use  those 


CONTENT  OF  A   BOTANICAL   COURSE          87 

forms  which  may  be  mentioned  in  the  books.  Again,  in  at- 
tempting to  live  closely  to  standard  there  would  inevitably  be 
some  impatience  at  an  artificial  hard-and-fast  criterion.  So  long 
as  teachers,  too,  are  scientists,  as  it  is  to  be  hoped  they  always 
will  be,  so  long  will  there  be  a  large  amount  of  individuality  in 
their  teaching.  Too  many  detailed  instructions  and  demands 
tend  to  curtail  the  teacher's  freedom  of  action,  and  individuality 
is  likely  to  be  lost,  a  condition  which  is  earnestly  to  be  avoided. 

While  not  closing  our  eyes  to  the  possible  disadvantage  of 
such  an  arrangement,  we  see  in  a  general  standard  very  definite 
values  which  more  than  compensate  for  the  dangers.  These 
are  (i)  in  the  interest  of  the  science  itself  which  "  as  a  study 
has  become  low  in  public  opinion,  good  public  opinion,"  1  by 
making  it  plain  to  all  who  have  interest  in  the  matter  that  a 
good  course  in  botany  is  possible  and  what  the  content  of  such 
a  course  should  be.  (2)  As  a  means  of  unifying  opinion,  and 
of  bringing  that  degree  of  uniformity  which  must  obtain  in  a 
course  from  the  kindergarten  to  the  college  before  any  study 
can  rightly  claim  a  permanent  place  in  a  system  of  education. 
Thus,  in  fact,  may  botany  be  shown  to  be  on  a  par  with  other 
studies,  behind  which  it  must  not  fall  as  a  means  of  training  and 
culture  in  the  widest  sense.  A  standard  is  necessary,  also,  in 
bringing  the  colleges  into  closer  touch  with  the  high  school, 
and  so  contributing  to  the  uniformity  of  education  in  general. 
(3)  A  generally  accepted  standard  is  also  of  great  value  in  edu- 
cating teachers,  and  it  tends,  through  them,  to  bring  teaching 
to  a  uniformly  high  standard  of  excellence  in  quality  and 
quantity. 

The  formulation  of  an  optimum  standard  is,  however,  one 

thing,   and    its  general    acceptance    in    the    fullest 

f  General  Prin- 
sense  another.     No  one  having  the  real  interests  of  ciples  under- 

lying  Course 
education  at  heart  will  either  attempt  to  torce  the  in  Botany 

necessary, 
adoption  or  will  himself  adopt  a  standard  without 

seeking  for  its  rationale.     We  have  held,  moreover,  that  it  is  only 


1  Ganong,  W.  F.,  Advances  in  Science  Teaching. 


88  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

in  a  large  way  that  such  may  be  received  in  a  big  country  with 
wide  differences  in  available  materials  and  in  the  individuality  of 
teachers.  What,  therefore,  is  of  more  fundamental  importance 
is  to  reach  a  general  agreement  upon  principles  which  shall  be 
kept  in  mind  in  planning  and  carrying  out  a  course  in  botany. 
If  such  principles  can  be  formulated  and  are  generally  accepted, 
general  agreement  on  the  content  of  the  course  will  follow  nat- 
urally. What,  then,  are  these  principles  ?  We  shall  state  what 
appears  to  be  the  answer  to  this  question  as  a  series  of  propo- 
sitions which  in  order  to  clearness  and  mutual  understanding 
are  separated  from  each  other. 

The  first  of  these  is  based  upon  the  fact  that  in  a  very  wide 
and  real  sense   the  high  school  is  the  college  of  the  people. 

Only  a  very  small  proportion  will  ever  find  further 
Botany  in  the 

High  School     opportunities   for  study  than  it  supplies  :    and   of 
must  be  Bot-  .         ,  e      ,  .       . 

any  for  the      those  who  do  enjoy  further  opportunity  for  educa- 


tion, few  will  continue  to  pursue  the  study  of  bot- 
any. It  follows,  then,  that  whatever  is  done  in  botany  in  the 
high  school  must  be  planned  and  carried  out  first  of  all  and 
principally  for  the  high-school  pupil,  and  only  secondarily  for 
the  candidate  for  the  college.  In  the  course  in  botany,  there- 
fore, the  pupil  must  find  those  elements  of  the  study  which  will 
fit  him  better  for  his  struggle  with  circumstances  than  he  would 
be  fitted  without  it.  Such  a  course  must,  therefore,  be  regarded 
not  as  training  in  order  to  make  botanists,  or  to  pass  an  exam- 
ination, but  it  must  have  as  its  aim  the  opening  of  the  mind  to 
the  realm  of  botanical  fact  and  thought,  so  as  to  equip  the 
average  person  with  those  qualities  and  abilities  which  will  but- 
tress his  character  and  make  him  a  more  intelligent  and 
thoughtful  citizen.  This  is  to  be  compassed  by  adherence  to 
other  principles  to  be  mentioned,  of  which  one  is,  that  the 

choice  of  topics  and  materials  shall  include  those 
Present  and 
Permanent       which  will  contribute  to  the  present  and  permanent 

interest  of  the  student.  No  good  can  be  accom- 
plished by  a  study  in  which  there  is  not  some  real,  live  interest 
on  the  part  of  the  pupil,  and  this  is  especially  true  of  those, 


CONTENT  OF  A    BOTANICAL   COURSE          89 

studies  which  do  not  have  the  inertia  derived  from  long  accep- 
tance and  from  obvious  usefulness.  Children  may  not  like  to 
study  arithmetic,  but  they  know  that  it  must  be  studied  and 
they  do  not  question  very  much  why.  But  botany  is  in  a  differ- 
ent situation.  It  depends  for  its  success  as  a  factor  in  educa- 
tion very  largely  on  its  appeal  to  the  emotions  and  reason. 
How  this  appeal  may  be  made  effective  is  not  subject  to  direc- 
tion, such  as  we  may  put  down  in  print.  It  depends  upon  the 
skill  of  the  instructor,  and  upon  his  own  attitude  in  large  part. 
Some  things,  however,  may  be  said  concerning  the  matter. 
Botany  must  illuminate  every-day  life,  and  must  therefore  deal 
with  familiar  things  1  in  a  way  which  will  raise  them  above  the 
common  level.  People  should  see  in  a  common  plant  those 
things  which  call  out  pleasurable  intellectual  association  ;  it  must 
be  full  of  meaning  and  not  an  excuse  for  a  terminology  or 

nomenclature.     By  inference,  that  botanical  teaching 

*  .         f     .         Importance  of 

which  does  not  give  to  the  student  a  point  of  view  a  Point  of 

must  within  a  large  measure  fail.  Facts  fade  from 
the  memory,  especially  facts  which  have  been  gained  without  a 
point  of  view  which  correlates  them  ;  but  a  viewpoint  holds  its 
place.  It  is  in  its  own  essence  a  very  part  of  mental  life,  and 
once  established  will  remain  for  all  time.  No  real,  profitable, 
permanent  interest  may  be  had  otherwise.  If  the  exercise  of 
botany  which  happens  to  concern  itself  with  leaves,  takes  up,  for 
example,  the  shapes  of  leaves,  and  the  student  is  expected  to 
interest  himself  in  fitting  the  various  forms  to  a  terminology,  he 
may  actually  be  coaxed  into  a  sort  of  interest  in  some  cases. 
Even  assuming  that  he  does,  it  is  quite  evident  that  the  termi- 
nology of  leaf  shapes  is  not  going  to  be  of  any  permanent  inter- 
est but  to  a  trifling  few,  because  it  is  of  little  use  except  in 
technical  descriptive  botany.  It  is  a  good  thing  to  know  the 
names  of  a  few  elementary  shapes,  such  as  square,  round,  oval? 
and  the  like,  because  we  use  them  often  in  daily  life.  But 
hastate,  spatulate,  repand,  etc.,  are  of  too  limited  service. 


1  Cook,  O.  F.,    On  Biological  Text-Books  and  Teachers. 


90  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

The  reasoning  which  would  persuade  us  that  the  application  of 
exact  terms  to  the  corresponding  objects  justifies  the  use  of 
botany  of  this  kind  is  just  as  applicable  to  the  exact  description 
by  terminology  of  any  objects  whatever.1  A  small  amount  of 
terminology  is  useful,  but  there  are  so  many  other  things  that 
are  more  so  that  we  cannot  justify  the  amount  formerly  sup- 
posed to  be  of  value.  If,  however,  a  leaf  is  viewed  as  a  living, 
working  organ  of  a  living,  active  plant ;  if  it  is  shown  by  experi- 
ment that  in  order  to  do  this  work  certain  conditions  are  neces- 
sary or  else  the  work  is  not  performed  ;  if  it  can  be  demonstrated 
that  in  the  absence  of  leaves  other  organs  may  become  adapted 
to  do  the  work  of  leaves,  or  again  that  the  peculiar  power  of 
the  leaf  is  lost  altogether  in  a  parasitic  plant, —  then  the  form  of 
a  leaf  is  seen  to  mean  something,  and  the  manner  of  its  work- 
ings to  throw  light  upon  its  structure.  If  it  is  at  all  possible 
for  a  person  to  get  a  point  of  view,  this  is  a  way  to  do  it,  and  a 
very  good  way,  as  many  teachers  will  attest.  .  If  the  mind  works 
in  any  degree  after  such  experiences,  it  will  tend  to  ask  similar 
questions  about  other  leaves  ;  and  the  effort,  if  any  is  made,  on 
seeing  a  new  and  differently  shaped  leaf,  will  not  be  to  get  a 
name  for  its  shape,  but  an  interpretation  in  dynamic  terms  of 
its  work  and  usefulness  to  the  plant.  The  mental  operation 
would  tend  toward  the  demand  for  an  experiment,  to  test  the 
validity  of  the  thought.  The  person  would  get  just  as  much  — 
or  rather  more  —  pleasure  out  of  mental  operations  of  this 
kind  than  out  of  the  other  kind,  and  the  information  gained 
would  react  on  the  mind  to  stimulate  it  to  more  difficult  tasks. 
On  the  one  hand,  there  would  be  the  constant  and  increas- 
ingly difficult  task  of  getting  names  ;  on  the  other,  there  would 
be  new  problems  to  solve  and  greater  power  to  solve  them. 
The  choice  is  evident,  if  our  premises  are  correct.  The  course 
which  is  not  arranged  and  carried  out  so  as  to  give  a  point  of 
view  is  insufficient ;  and  the  truth  of  this  is  quite  independent 
of  any  topics  or  phase  of  the  study  whatsoever. 

1  See  also  Campbell,  D.  H.,  Elementary  Botany  in  High  School  and 
College. 


CONTENT  OF  A    BOTANICAL   COURSE          91 

"  Pupils  must  be  interested  in  the  plant  as  a  living  thing, 
pushing  its  way  amidst  fierce  competition  in  a  more  or  less 
hostile  environment,"  *  and  it  is  this  thought  which  has  justified 
the  success  which  has  attended  the  teaching  of  such  men  as 
Spalding,  Ganong,  Atkinson,  and  Bergen,  and  which  underlies 
the  oft-repeated  claim  that  botany,  as  well  as  the  other  sciences, 
should  develop  the  spirit  of  inquiry.2  But  a  spirit  of  inquiry 
cannot  be  identified  with  a  desire  for  descriptive  names,  be 
they  applied  to  things  or  processes  ;  it  is  entirely  dependent 
upon  a  point  of  view.  If  the  teacher,  therefore,  find  that  he 
cannot  illuminate  a  particular  part  of  the  work  with  a  point  of 
view,  let  him  drop  it  and  take  hold  of  something  else  which  he 
can.  And  then  he  would  better  spend  his  spare  moments,  if 
he  has  any,  in  finding  out  what  may  be  the  matter  with  his 
knowledge  on  this  particular  subject. 

We  pass  on  to  consider  another  principle,  namely,  that  which 
holds  that  of  the  content  of  a  subject  the  very  best  shall  con- 
stitute the  basis  of  the  course.  The  educator  is  The  Best  of  its 
always  confronted  with  the  practical  problem  of  jjjfjjj? ina 
making  the  best  use  of  a  small  amount  of  time.  Course 
He  frequently  finds  himself  compelled  to  discriminate  between 
the  more  and  the  less  important,  and  to  lay  aside  relatively 
meaningless  detail.  It  is  his  duty  to  work  over  the  subject, 
and  select  those  phases  of  it  which  shall  best  represent  to  the 
student  the  whole  science.  The  student  on  his  side  may  justly 
claim  to  be  made  aware  of  his  birthright;  to  know  what  the 
great  students  of  botany  have  determined  and  made  sure  for 
the  future.  "  Every  science  should  give  its  students  a  general 
view  of  its  subject-matter."3  Certain  implications  follow  this 
principle,  adherence  to  which  forbids  the  use  of  one  part  of 
botanv  to  the  exclusion  of  the  rest ;  it  forbids,  too,  that  the 


1  Bergen,  J.  Y.,  Botany  as  an  Alternative  in  College  Admission  Re- 
quirements. 

2  Wager,    H.,   The  Teaching  of  Botany  in  Schools.      School  World, 
3:  422.     1901 

8  Cook,  O.  F.,  On  Biological  Text-Books  and  Teachers. 


92  THE    TEACHING    OF  BOTANY 

teacher  should,  because  of  his  own  learning  and  interests,  ignore 
the  necessity  of  weighing  carefully  the  importance  of  the  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  subject.  He  must,  if  he  have  an  honest  attitude 
toward  the  needs  of  the  student,  examine  the  claims  of  all  our 
knowledge,  and  determine  what  are  those  matters  which  may  be 
used  in  secondary  education  which  will  give  the  right  concep- 
tion of  what  botany  deals  with.  It  is  evident  from  the  history 
of  the  teaching  of  botany  that  this  has  not  always  been  done. 
At  one  time  taxonomy,  or  rather  flower  analysis,  occupies  the 
field  to  the  exclusion  of  everything  else ;  and  when  a  reform 
sweeps  over  us  this  in  turn  is  excluded  and  comparative 
morphology  claims  attention.  The  pendulum  which  has  done 
figurative  duty  for  so  long  swings  to  extremes,  and  teachers  run 
after  new  if  not  false  gods  in  the  guise  of  fads.  When  a  science 
such  as  botany  is  new  in  the  educational  field,  this  is  not  an 
unqualified  evil.  It  educates  the  teacher,  and  he  needs  it.  He 
who  follows  a  fad  for  a  time,  and  who  thereby  learns,  may  get 
new  ideas  and  different  points  of  view.  He  is  therefore  better 
off  than  the  teacher  who  is  so  much  in  a  rut  that  he  is  unwilling 
to  arouse  himself  to  get  out  of  it. 

But  while  we  may  determine  and  agree  upon  what  for  educa- 
tion are  the  best  parts  of  botany,  we  may,  nevertheless,  not 
thereby  be  able  to  settle  their  relative  importance. 
Proportioned  To  the  scientific  botanist  each  part  may  be  equally 
important  with  the  others,  while  to  the  average 
person  one  part  may  be  of  much  greater  importance,  either 
from  the  viewpoint  of  what  is  good  for  him  or  of  what  he  him- 
self wants.  It  is  clearly  true,  however,  that  as  educators  we 
must  endeavor  to  see  what  of  discipline,  what  of  information, 
and  what  of  culture  value  each  part  may  have  ;  and  the  student, 
on  the  other  hand,  must  be  allowed  to  see,  not  alone  what  the 
parts  of  botanical  study  are,  but  how  they  are  related  to  each 
other.1  What  is  needed,  therefore,  is  a  course  in  botany  of 
which  all  its  parts  are  represented  in  proportion  to  their  signifi- 


1  Bessey,  C.  E.    Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  p.  953.     1895.     Ganong,  The  Teach- 
ing Botanist,  p.  3. 


CONTENT  OF  A   BOTANICAL   COURSE         93 

cance  as  knowledge  and   as  discipline,   and    that  these  shall 
be   so   presented   as    to   appear   to   the  student   to    be   what 
they  really  are,   namely,  the  interrelated   parts  of 
a  whole.     To  present  the  physiology  of  plants  with-  erlyHeiated 
out  showing  its  importance  in  the  interpretation  of  l  °le' 

form  ;  to  introduce  classification  without  showing  the  bearing 
of  morphology  and  geographical  distribution  upon  our  under- 
standing of  it  and  without  presenting  therewith  the  idea  of 
evolution,  —  to  do  thus  is  to  make  it  impossible  for  a  student  to 
get  a  fair  understanding  of  what  botanical  study  is  or  the  real 
significance  of  any  of  its  parts.  "  If  this  be  admitted,  it  follows 
that  the  optimum  course  in  botany  must  treat  the  science,  not 
by  divisions,  but  synthetically,  must  include  training  in  the 
elements  of  anatomy,  morphology,  physiology,  ecology,  and 
classification,  and  cannot  be  limited  to  any  one  or  two  of 
them."  l  This  principle,  which  has  been  accepted  notably  by 
Spalding,  Bergen,  and  Ganong,  has  been  ably  defended  by 
Ganong,  and  has  attained  a  considerable  recognition  in  the 
actions  of  the  Society  for  Plant  Morphology  and  Physiology.2 
The  New  York  State  Science  Teachers'  Association,3  The 
College  Entrance  Examination  Board  of  the  Association  of  Col- 
leges and  Preparatory  Schools  of  the  Middle  States  and  Mary- 
land,4 and  by  many  botanists.  What  of  the  content  of  the 
divisions  of  botany,  and  in  what  way  they  may  be  co-ordinated 
in  such  a  course,  described  by  Ganong  as  synthetic,  will  occupy 
our  attention  beyond. 

We  are  led  by  the  logic  which   has  guided  us  thus  far  to 
another  step  in  the  argument,  in  holding  that,  just  and  the 
as  the  parts  of   the  subject  must  be    presented  in   J^^'toother 
their    interrelation,    so    also    should    the    teacher  Knowledge, 
show   that   botany  as   a  whole  does   not    stand   alone,    com- 

1  Ganong,  The  Teaching  Botanist,  p.  3. 

2  The  Report  which  was  adopted  by  this  Society  was  first  printed  in 
1901,  and  a  third  revised  edition  appeared  in  School  Science  in  May,  1902. 

3  See  the   Proceedings  for  December,   1901.     Univ.  State  New  York 
Bulletin  269,  October,  1902,  p.  736. 

4  College  Entrance  Examination  Board,  etc.     Document  8. 


94  THE   TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

pletely  separated  from  other  knowledge  and  from  human  ex- 
perience.1 While  botany  is  indebted  to  other  sciences  for 
much  which  has  enabled  us  to  understand  plants,  it  is  never- 
theless true  also  that  the  sciences  owe  much  to  botany.  Pfeffer's 
record  of  an  error,  in  connection  with  other  things,  led  van  t' 
Hoff  to  his  splendid  discovery  that  the  three  fundamental  laws 
for  gas  pressure  are  applicable  to  the  osmotic  pressure  of  solu- 
tions. This  is  but  one  instance  of  many  which  might  be 
mentioned  in  illustration  did  space  permit. 

The  relations  of  botany  to  zoology  are  too  obvious  to  need 
discussion,  and  the  value  of  certain  phases  of  botany  in  helping 
the  pupil  to  understand  animal  physiology  has  already  been 
alluded  to  and  needs  no  further  amplification.  Its  relations  to 
human  welfare  in  the  practical  application  of  botanical  prin- 
ciples to  arts  and  manufactures  have,  too,  been  discussed  ;  and 
the  importance  of  all  these  relations,  which  show  that  botany 
does  not  stand  alone,  but  occupies  an  equally  dignified  and  im- 
portant position  co-ordinate  with  and  related  to  other  knowl- 
edge, should  not  be  overlooked  in  education,  but  from  time  to 
time  should  be  pointed  out  in  a  clear  way  by  the  teacher. 

The  principles  which  have  first  been  presented  above,  al- 
though not  without  their  bearing  upon  the  method  of  presenta- 
tion of  the  subje.ct,  have  their  chief  function  in  guiding  the 
teacher  in  the  selection  of  topics  constituting  the  course.  We 
shall  now  present  three  other  guiding  principles,  having  to  do 
chiefly  with  method.  It  will  be  seen  that  these  are  not  co- 
ordinate with  those  principles  already  advanced,  or  exclusive 
of  them,  but  are  in  fact  implied  ;  yet  it  serves  a  useful  purpose 
to  treat  them  separately,  by  way  of  emphasizing  what  has  been 
said  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  present  chapter. 

The  first  of  these  is  that  the  dignity  of  the  subject  must  be 
made  evident,  and  this  to  boys  as  well  as  to  girls.  There  is 
a  feeling  among  some  eminent  teachers  that  certain  prevalent 


1  "...  The  division  of  science  into  separate  subjects  is  due  merely 
to  a  convenient  mental  abstraction.  .  .  ."  Pfeffer,  W.,  Physiology  of 
Plants,  p.  6. 


CONTENT  OF  A   BOTANICAL   COURSE         95 


methods  of  approach  and  presentation  of  botany  do  not  com- 
mand the  respect  of  high-school  students,  especially  boys,  and 
strenuous  objections  have  been  raised  to  such  The  Dignity 
methods  on  these  grounds.  It  is  therefore  really 
pertinent  to  our  ends  to  give  attention  to  this  very 
matter,  the  failure  to  do  which  has  brought  botany  into 
disrepute.  This  condition,  while  in  part  due  to  the  exceedingly 
one-sided  choice  of  subject-matter,  is  in  no  small  measure  to 
be  charged  up  to  the  inability  of  teachers  to  bring  out  the 
powerful  aspects  of  botany.  What,  then,  may  be  done  to  avoid 
the  imputation  in  the  minds  of  pupils  that  botany  is  beneath 
their  serious  consideration  ?  Certainly  this  :  the  work  must 
make  strenuous  demands  on  them.  The  study  must  be  diffi- 
cult enough  so  that  pupils  may  not  get  the  impression  that  they 
can  easily  do  it  all.  In  academic  parlance  it  must  not  be  a 
'  snap.'  If  it  is  regarded  as  such  it  is  certainly  no  fault  of  the 
subject.  We  would  even  maintain  that,  granting  the  hindrance 
of  prejudice  on  the  part  of  pupils,  it  makes  little  difference 
where  you  begin  and  what  you  deal  with,  their  respect  may  be 
commanded  if  the  teacher  has  knowledge  enough  and  knows 
how  to  handle  it.  What  is  more,  it  should  be  the  aim  of  the 
teacher  to  make  the  study  of  such  a  subject  as  botany  or 
zoology  do  duty,  in  some  part  at  least,  for  plain,  old-fashioned 
discipline.  One  great  practical  value  of  the  laboratory  teach- 
ing in  education  lies  in  the  possibility  of  doing  this,  because 
of  the  responsibility  it  places  on  the  student  to  do  things  for 
himself.  He  must  be  in  a  measure  his  own  monitor.  He 
must  realize  that  if  he  would  do  something  he  must  do  it 
independently  and  not  under  compunction. 

Independently  ordered  good  behavior  is  therefore  a  great 
end  to  be  sought  after  for  the  student.  But  how  can  this  be 
attained  unless  botany  commends  itself  to  the  respect  of  the 
student  as  worthy  of  his  serious  thought?  We  hold  that  unless 
this  condition  is  secured  the  botany  is,  as  the  student  comes 
under  such  circumstances  to  believe,  not  worth  while,  and  no 
motive  is  then  present  for  earnest  endeavor  on  his  part. 


96  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

But  simply  to  make  it  difficult  it  is  patent  is  not  enough. 
It  must  have  the  right  content.  What  this  is,  we  have  already 
Historical  endeavored  to  show,  may  be  determined  by  other 
Allusion.  principles.  Again,  it  serves  the  same  useful  purpose 
to  give  the  student  some  idea  of  the  character  of  the  men  whose 
lives  have  been  spent  in  the  pursuit  of  botany,  of  the  extent 
and  nature  of  their  studies,  of  the  difficulties  which  they  over- 
came, and  the  effect  of  their  studies  upon  modern  thought. 
This  gives  a  human  touch  which  brings  it  home  to  a  thoughtful 
student,  and  may  reach,  if  anything  may,  the  sympathy  and  re- 
spect of  a  careless  or  indifferent  one.  The  teacher  should  do 
this  in  an  effective  way,  in  connection  with  the  appropriate 
topics,  and  to  this  end  a  study  of  von  Sachs'  History  of  Botany 
will  be  good  preparation.  By  means  of  historical  allusion 
the  subject  is  viewed  with  a  perspective  which  heightens  its 
force  and  interest,  and  commands  deeper  respect.  And  it  may 
further  be  said  in  support  of  the  value  of  this  method  that  the 
culture  viewpoint  demands  that  people  should  not  be  ignorant  of 
the  chief  facts  about  the  great  leaders  of  thought  in  botany  any 
more  than  elsewhere.  Such  men  are  Sprengel,  Leeuwenhoek, 
Linnaeus,  Robert  Brown,  Hofmeister,  Sachs,  Pasteur,  Darwin, 
and  Asa  Gray.  If  example  has  any  force,  if  ideals  as  exempli-' 
fied  in  the  work  of  such  men  have  any  meaning  for  us,  surely  it 
is  not  amiss  to  give  students  some  idea  of  the  value  of  their 
lives  and  thought. 

And  this  leads  us  to  the  second  principle  which  shall  guide  us 
in  the  selection  of  method.  It  is  this.  The  study  of  botany 
Respect  for  has  a  direct  bearing  upon  human  life  and  welfare, 
Human  life.  an(j  jt  snouid  be  made  to  heighten  their  signifi- 
cance to  the  average  mind.  An  imperfect  understanding  of 
these  matters  is  far  too  widespread.  Ill-mannered  people  who 
ignore  the  rights  of  others  mingle  with  the  well-intentioned  to 
form  a  throng  of  those  vicious  and  prejudiced  and  ignorant  who 
stand  in  the  way  of  human  progress  and  comfort.  It  is  the 
business  of  formal  education  to  combat  these  by  the  enlighten- 
ment of  their  minds  and  those  of  their  children.  In  this  botany 


CONTENT  OF  A    BOTANICAL   COURSE          97 

can  and  must  play  its  part.  The  teacher,  therefore,  must  set 
before  himself  the  task  of  arranging  his  knowledge  so  that  his 
methods  of  teaching  will  set  these  matters  in  their  true  light. 
One  part  of  plant  study  is  especially  important  in  this  regard, 
namely,  that  dealing  with  bacteria,  for  it  is  in  connection  with  the 
knowledge  of  these  forms  that  the  mutual  obligations  of  people 
may  be  peculiarly  emphasized.  It  is  this  lesson,  therefore, 
rather  than  the  morphological  aspect  of  bacteria,  which  is  of  so 
great  moment  in  elementary  work. 

Finally,  the  method  of  the  teacher  in  presenting  a  course  in 
botany  shall  be  such  as  to  exemplify,  at  all  points,  the  method 

of  thought  by  which  the  knowledge  of  botany  has 

Method  of 
been  gained.     "  Every  science  should  give  its  stu-  Teaching  shall 

dents  an  introductory  acquaintance -with  its  methods  Method  of 
of  investigation."  1  We  have  sufficiently  for  our 
purpose  already  examined  the  nature  of  this  method,  which 
has  been  described  by  Huxley  as  "  trained  and  organized 
common  sense"  2  Cook  (loc.  tit.)  has  held  that  to  this  end  "  it  is 
desirable  to  make  a  careful  dissection  and  thorough  microscopic 
examination  of  at  least  one  animal  or  plant "  ;  but,  while  this 
may  be  justified  on  other  grounds,  we  maintain  that  it  is  not 
what  is  studied  but  rather  how  the  course  as  a  whole  is  carried 
out  that  gains  the  end  desired.  One  exercise  or  one  dissec- 
tion is  not  enough  to  enforce  the  whole  lesson  of  method  of 
thought.  Granting  that  a  complete  and  thorough  dissection 
of  a  plant  is  to  be  desired,  yet  a  teacher  who  failed  to  see  the 
importance  of  exemplifying  the  method  of  thought  at  all  times 
would  easily  undo  the  good  effects  of  a  few  days'  work.  The 
task,  therefore,  is  to  bring  each  part  of  the  work  into  its  relations 
with  all  the  rest.  An  "  inexorable  logic "  should  bind  it  all 
together  and  make  it  a  unified  whole,  and  this  should  depend 
chiefly  upon  that  which  the  student  has  himself  been  able  to 
observe.  This  is  no  easy  task,  and  calls  for  earnest  devotion 
to  a  high  ideal  of  teaching. 

1  Cook,  O.  F  ,  On  Biological  Text-Books  and  Teachers. 

2  Science  and  Education,  p.  45. 


98  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

In  the  present  chapter,  the  values  of  an  objective  standard 
for  a  course  in  botany  have  been  discussed  and  its  dangers 
pointed  out.  The  formulation  of  a  course  in  botany,  and  there- 
fore of  such  a  standard,  must  be  based  upon  broad  and  accepted 
principles.  These  are  as  follows. 

The  botany  of  the  high  school  must  be  botany  for  the  masses. 
It  must  therefore  make  not  only  for  their  immediate  but  for 
their  permanent  interest.  To  this  end  a  point  of  view  is  neces- 
sary rather  than  the  learning  of  facts,  an  "  intelligent  apprecia- 
tion of  a  few  truths  rather  than  an  ill-digested  mass  of  facts." 
A  course  in  botany  must  offer  the  best  of  its  content,  arranged 
quantitatively  so  as  to  give  to  the  student  a  well-proportioned 
view.  The  facts  must  therefore  be  given  in  their  proper  rela- 
tion to  each  other  and  to  the  whole,  and  the  whole  in  its  relation 
to  other  knowledge. 

Certain  important  principles  which  it  is  conceived  should 
influence  the  teacher's  method  have  also  received  attention. 
These  are  :  (i)  That  the  dignity  of  the  subject  must  be  made 
apparent  to  the  pupil,  and  the  means  to  this  end  have  been 
presented ;  (2)  the  course  shall  be  carried  out  also  to  the 
result  that  people  shall  have  an  increased  respect  for  human 
life  and  welfare.  Finally,  the  method  of  the  teacher  shall  be 
such  as  to  exemplify  at  every  point  the  intellectual  processes 
used  in  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  the  science. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE   VARIOUS   TYPES    OF    BOTANICAL    COURSES 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Atkinson,  G.  F.  Methods  of  Teaching  Botany  in  the  Secondary 
Schools.  Univ.  State  of  New  York.  REGENT'S  BULLETIN.  No.  42. 
August,  1897. 

Atkinson,  G.  F.  Method  of  Teaching  Botany  in  the  Secondary 
Schools.  ASA  GRAY  BULLETIN,  6:  102-105.  December,  1898. 

Barnes,  C.  R.  The  Progress  and  Problems  of  Plant  Physiology. 
Presidential  Address,  Section  G.  Proc.  A.  A.  A.  S.  1899.  SCIENCE,  II., 
10 :  316.  1899. 

Barnes,  C.  R.  Plant  Physiology  in  the  High  School.  SCHOOL 
SCII-NCE,  2:  320-324.  December,  1902. 

Beal,  W.  J.  How  Shall  a  Young  Person  Study  Botany?  Proc.  5th 
Annual  Conf.,  New  York  State  Science  Teachers  Association.  De- 
cember, 28-29,  1900. 

Brendel,  F.  Historical  Sketch  of  the  Science  of  Botany  in  North 
America  from  1635-1840.  AMERICAN  NATURALIST,  13:  754-771.  De- 
cember, 1897. 

Campbell,  D.  H.  Elementary  Botany  in  High  School  and  College. 
SCHOOL  AND  COLLEGE,  i :  211.  April,  1892. 

Coulter,  J.  M.  The  Future  of  Systematic  Botany.  Proc.  A.  A. 
A.  S.  SCIENCE,  18:  127.  4  Sept.,  1891. 

Everman,  B.  E.  The  Teaching  of  Biology  in  the  Public  School. 
PLANT  WORLD,  i :  119.  1897-1898. 

Farlow,  "W.  G.  Biological  Teaching  in  Colleges.  POPULAR 
SCIENCE  MONTHLY,  28 :  581.  March,  1886. 

Galloway,  B.  T.  Applied  Botany  :  Retrospective  and  Prospective. 
SCIENCE,  II.,  16 :  49-59.  n  July,  1902. 

Ganong,  W.  F.  The  Teaching  Botanist.  New  York.  The  Mac- 
millan  Co.  1899. 

Ganong,  W.  F.  Cardinal  Principles  of  Morphology.  BOTANICAL 
GAZETTE,  31  :  426-434.  June,  1901. 

Goebel,    K.     Organography.     Oxford.     Clarendon  Press.     1900. 

Lloyd,  F.  E.  The  Course  in  Botany  in  the  Horace  Mann  School. 
TEACHERS'  COLLEGE  RECORD,  2:  No.  i.  January,  1901. 

Macmillan,  C.  Current  Methods  in  Botanical  Instruction.  EDU- 
CATION, 12:  460.  April,  1892. 

Robinson,  B.  L.  The  Problems  and  Possibilities  of  Systematic 
Botany.  SCIENCE,  II.,  14:  465.  1901. 


100  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

Thiselton-Dyer,  W.  T.  Address  before  the  Biological  Section, 
British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science.  September,  1888. 

Underwood,  L.  M.  The  Study  of  Botany  in  High  Schools.  JOUR- 
NAL OF  PEDAGOGY,  n  :  No.  2.  April,  1898. 

Underwood,  L.  M.  The  Last  Quarter.  A  Reminiscence  and  an 
Outlook.  Address  of  the  Retiring  President,  Botanical  Society  of 
America,  June,  1900.  SCIENCE,  II.  12  :  161-170.  3  August,  1900. 

The  various  Text-Books,  the  titles  of  which  appear  in  Chapter  X. 

HAVING  previously  explained  to   the  student  the  value  of 
botany  for  education  as  regards  its  aesthetic,  informational,  and 
disciplinary  phases,  and    having  enlarged  upon  some  general 
principles  for  which,  underlying  as  they  do  the  determination 
of  the  content  of  the  course,  we  seek  general  acceptance,  we 
now  take  up  for  special  consideration  the  different  types  of 
courses  in  botany.     These  will  be  examined  in  their  historical 
sequences,  and  an  effort  will  be  made  to  place  a  just  estimate 
upon  their  relative  values  in  elementary  education. 

The  phase  of  botany  which  has  for  the  longest  period  been 
dominant  both  in  secondary  education  and  in  the  college  is 
Descriptive      descriptive  botany,  especially  that  part  of  it  deal- 
Flower  *nS  w^h  tne  fl°wermg  plants.     It  is  the  merit  or 
Analysis.         rather  the  lack  of  merit  of  this,  taken  alone  for  the 
purposes  of  education,  that  has  formed  for  the  most  part  the 
issue  of  the  discussions  in  recent  years  on  botanical  teaching. 
The  course  in  botany  of  the  kind  to  which  we  refer  consisted, 
in  its  better  aspect,  of  a  preliminary  study  of  the  more  obvious 
morphological  features  of  the   flowering   plants,   with  especial 
stress  laid  upon  those  structures  which  serve  best  in  following 
up  diagnostic  descriptions  of  plants  which  were  to  be  collected, 
"analyzed,"  pressed,    and   mounted.     Sometimes  the  student 
was  required  to  make   a  floral  diagram  ;  more  often  to  fill  in 
ruled  sheets  calling  for  the  insertion  of  technical  terms  descrip- 
tive of  the  various  parts  of  the  plant.     The  number 
Content  of 

thisKind         of  plants  to  be  collected  and  named,  this  represent- 
of  Course.  ....  ...  „ 

ing  a  criterion  of  success   or   failure,    was  usually 

fifty.     In  some  cases  something  was  said  about  the  functions  of 
the  parts,  by  way  of  information,  but  nothing  of  this  kind  was 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF  BOTANICAL   COURSES    IOI 

ever  subjected  to  the  test  of  experimentation.  Little  or  nothing 
was  said  about  the  cryptogams,  a  few  ferns  excepted ;  and 
when  perchance  one  or  more  of  these  intruders  appeared  in 
the  herbarium,  the  ruled  blank  accompanying  it  seemed  to  lack 
adaptability,  with  the  results  that  a  name  was  obtained  by  hook 
or  by  crook  and  attached  to  it,  but  no  notion  of  the  real  nature 
of  the  plant  was  gained.  It  was  an  unfortunate  outcast  from 
good  society.  This,  briefly  stated,  was  the  content  of  such  a 
course.  Whether,  as  education,  it  was  relatively  good  or  bad 
was  a  fortuitous  circumstance,  and  dependent  upon  the  chance 
that  the  teacher  really  knew  some  botany  —  the  rare  ex- 
ception. 

In  defence  of  this  kind  of  work  it  is  claimed  that  it  brings  the 
pupil  into  acquaintance  with  plants  about  him,  or,  as  one  has  put 
it,  "to  know  plants."  What  is  generally  meant  ToKnow 
is  that,  when  one  walks  through  the  fields  or  woods  Plants, 
he  is  able  to  remark  "  Here  is  Ranunculus  bulbosus"  or  ."  There 
is  Sanguinariacanadensis"  to  which  may  be  added  some  obser- 
vations about  the  charm  or  beauty  of  the  flowers,  or  about  the 
possession  of  an  herbarium  specimen.  We  take  purposely  the 
worst  meaning,  because  it  embodies  more  exactly  the  issue,  and 
because  this  kind  of  thing  actually  meets  the  conception  in  the 
minds  of  many  of  "  knowing  a  plant."  Laying  aside  the  aes- 
thetic factor  as  being  of  no  more  or  less  importance  than  a  like 
interest  in  any  other  object,  and  regarding  the  herbarium  pos- 
session as  having  no  significance  except  as  possibly  having  in- 
volved some  training  in  neatness  and  orderliness —  which  is 
not  peculiar  to  botany  —  what  does  the  ability  to  reel  off  the 
names  of  a  few  plants  signify?  To  be  sure  it  has  a  fictitious 
value  in  that  it  looks  learned,  arid  may  impress  the  hearer  who 
is  cheated  by  high-sounding  names.  Further  than  this,  it  im- 
plies nothing  of  related  knowledge.  The  person  may  have  made 
once  a  formal  description  in  arbitrary  terminology  of  the  various 
organs  of  a  score  of  plants,  but  the  facts  gleaned  stand  alone 
and  unrelated  to  any  others.  Nothing  is  known  about  the  rela- 
tion of  one  plant  to  another  or  to  other  organisms,  or  its  devel- 


102  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

opment,  or  the  conditions  of  its  existence.  In  short,  the  whole 
thing  is  an  act  of  memory  without  the  use  of  the  reason,  and 
has  the  same  false  value  that  remembering  what  "  the  fabled 
labors  of  a  fabled  demi-god "  has.  It  is  not  even  an  orna- 
ment to  a  cultured  person. 

This  ability  to  recall  names  and  terms  means  that  the  place 
of  the  real  has  been  usurped  by  the  unreal ;  names  have  been 
made  to  replace  related  facts.  The  value  of  no- 
stead  of  menclature  has  been  misconceived.  As  Farlow  has 
put  it,  pupils  "  think  they  have  comprehended  the 
thing  when  they  christen  it  a  high-sounding  name."1  One 
cannot  therefore  be  said  to  "  know  a  plant "  when  one  knows  its 
name,  any  more  than  he  can  be  said  to  know  a  man  when  he 
knows  no  more  about  him  than  this.  And  that  people  gen- 
erally regard  with  open-eyed  admiration  a  person  who  can  dis- 
play a  memory  for  names  —  especially  "  Latin  names  "  —  is  a 
proof  of  the  necessity  that  education  should  be  rid  of  those 
methods  which  tend  to  preserve  the  integrity  of  that  portion  of 
the  people  which  can  be  fooled  all  the  time. 

But  because  it  has  happened  that  the  teaching  of  botany 
which  has  lacked  educational  merit  has  been  confined  chiefly  to 
descriptive  botany,  it  does  not  follow  that  this  part  of  the  sub- 
ject has  in  itself  no  value  in  a  course.  Any  portion  of  a  science 
may  be  poorly  taught  and  thereby  condemnation  may  be 
brought  upon  it.  It  will  therefore  be  pertinent  to  look  carefully 
into  the  objections  which  may  be  urged  against  the  way  in  which 
descriptive  botany  has  been  handled.  Thus  may  we  profit  by 
the  defects  of  the  past  and  learn  how  to  improve  the  teaching 
of  the  future. 

The  essence  of  the  biological  method  is  comparison.  To 
get  ideas  of  morphology  we  must  compare  plants  and  their 
organs.  To  get  ideas  of  relationship  we  must  compare.  To 
arrive  at  the  general  idea  of  physiology  we  must  compare  the 
behavior  of  organisms.  But  what  has  the  descriptive  botany 
of  elementary  education  been?  It  has  been  an  examination 

1  Popular  Science  Monthly,  28  :  581.     1885. 


VARIOUS   TYPES  OF  BOTANICAL   COURSES   103 

and  collection  of  a  mass  of  facts  without  organizing  these  by  a 
method  of  thought.  If  comparison  was  indulged  LackofCom 
in  at  all  it  was  comparison  of  a  plant  with  its  de-  pa^on. 
scription  in  a  book.1  If  the  plant  did  not  fit  the  book  it  was 
forced  to  do  so,  and  if  the  "  student "  failed  in  this,  so  much 
the  worse  for  the  plant.  As  a  result  this  study  of  botany  —  as 
we  call  it  by  courtesy  —  has  magnified  symbols  rather  than  the 
things  symbolized,  and  has  helped  to  strengthen  the  reverence 
for  books  and  authority  already  too  strong.  The  fifty  more  or 
fewer  plants  examined  in  this  way  have  been  "  so  many  isolated 
objects  that  practically  have  nothing  to  do  with  each  other, 
and  are  simply  to  be  labeled  and  filed  away."  2  Hunting  for  a 
name  by  means  of  a  key  is  sometimes  hard  business.  The 
plant,  after  all,  will  not  be  forced  into  a  really  satisfactory  and 
orderly  set  of  pigeon  holes,  so  that  the  most  strenuous  part  of 
the  process  —  keying  —  has  usually  been  commenced  in  the 
index,  thanks  to  the  happy  circumstance  of  knowing  the  com- 
mon name.  Evasion  of  work  has  been  the  aim  of  the  pupil, 
and  what  little  good  might  have  come  from  honest  effort  has 
been  avoided.  False  notions  of  what  botany  is  and  is  good 
for  have  followed  in  the  wake  of  this  march  in  the  dark,  and 
the  earnest  teacher  has  to  face  the  remarks  of  good  students  to 
the  effect  that  they  would  rather  get  their  botany  from  zoolo- 
gists than  from  botanists  !  *  If  this  really  indicates  the  true  con- 
dition of  botanical  teaching  in  our  best  schools  to-day  —  which 
it  does  only  in  part  —  then  it  is  a  very  dullard  who  does  not 
see  his  duty. 

Again  the  examination  of  a  few  plants  in  the  once  prevalent 
fashion  of  carefully  avoiding  the  hard  and  small  ones,  means  a 
bit  of  detailed  information  of  a  few  plants  instead  Knowledgeof 
of  a  knowledge  of  principles.  One  of  the  big  ideas  a  few  Plants, 
which  a  student  should  get  from  the  study  of  plant  forms  is 
that  of  evolution.  He  should  have  an  opportunity  of  looking 


1  Campbell,   D.  H.,  Elementary  Botany  in  High  School  and  College, 

p.  212. 

2  Campbell,  D.  H.,  loc.  cit. 


104  THE    TEACHING    OF  BOTANY 

into  the  kind  of  evidence  which  underlies  this  idea.  The  study 
of  classification  must  be  so  ordered  that  it  shall  not  be  thought 
of  as  an  end  in  itself,  —  a  cataloguing  system  for  the  disposal  of 
objects,  —  but  as  an  expression  of  our  ideas  of  plant  relation- 
ships as  a  body  of  evidence  for  the  acceptance  of  a  general 
formula.  Of  greater  value  than  a  prejudiced  notion  that  a 
plant  must  fit  a  description  is  the  notion  that  plants  are 
organisms  which  do  not  stand  still.  If  the  student  does  not 
get  some  such  notions  as  these  he  has  not  been  done  justice 
and  the  science  is  improperly  represented.  The  principles  of 
biological  education  set  forth  in  a  previous  chapter  are  pretty 
much  all  violated.  The  kind  of  thing  which  has  passed  for 
education  in  botany  has  not  contributed  as  it  should  have 
to  broad  training  and  therefore  to  good  citizenship,  and  has 
probably  deterred  many  a  person  from  choosing  botany  as  a 
profession.  "  While  the  high  school  is  not  for  the  training 
of  specialists,  it  certainly  is  not  to  kill  them  off."1 

Another  great  defect  of  this  obsolescent  method  of  present- 
ing botany,  expressed  in  part  in  the  preceding  paragraph,  is 
static  Point  tne  utterly  ia^se  conception  which  grows  up  in  the 
of  view.  mind  as  to  the  nature  of  the  plant.  It  is  the  con- 
ception that  plants  are  formal,  changeless  objects  made  up  of  a 
definite  number  of  morphological  elements  which,  as  modified 
organs,  appear  somewhat  differently  in  different  plants.  Thus, 
according  to  this  idea,  the  flowering  plants  have  the  morpho- 
logical elements  of  root,  stem,  leaf,  and  hair,  and  whatever  else 
a  plant  may  appear  to  have,  or  whatever  of  these  it  does  not 
have,  it  is  necessarily  made  up  of  these  elements  and  these 
Rather  than  alone.'2  The  idea  that  some  plants  possess  none 
the  Dynamic.  of  t]iese  organs>  and  that  all  of  these  organs  must 
have,  at  some  time  and  in  some  way,  arisen  anew  is  totally 
foreign  to  this  static  conception  of  plants.  The  ideas  that 

1  Evermah,  B.  E.,  The  Teaching  of  Biology  in  the  Public  Schools. 

-  For  a  good  discussion  of  the  contrast  between  the  older  and  newer 
morphology,  see  Ganong,  W.  F.,  Cardinal  Principles  of  Morphology. 
See  also  Essay  VIII.  in  his  Teaching  Botanist, 


VARIOUS  TYPES  OF  BOTANICAL   COURSES    105 

an  organism  is  a  centre  of  activities,  physical  and  chemical,  that 
it  is  the  scene  of  struggle  and  response  to  the  factors  of  its 
environment,  internal  and  external,  and  that  its  form  and  struc- 
ture are  nothing  more  or  less  than  a  record  of  these  motions  and 
changes,  and  a  measure  of  their  forces  and  directions,  —  these 
are  left  totally  in  abeyance.  To  be  sure,  these  ideas  are  them- 
selves comparatively  new,1  so  that  the  teacher  of  fifty  years 
ago  is  not  to  be  censured  for  not  seeking  the  dynamic  rather 
than  the  static  point  of  view  ;  but  that  there  has  been  a  change 
in  botany  in  the  direction  of  this  better  and  fuller  appreciation 
of  the  plant,  and  that  many  teachers  are  not  only  backward  in 
adopting  it  but  are  entirely  ignorant  of  it,  are  reasons  enough 
for  showing  the  defects  of  botanical  education  in  the  lack  of  its 
adoption.  In  this  newer  conception  we  should  find  the  source 
of  an  inspiration  to  teaching,  and  the  teacher  to  whom  botany 
is  the  lifeless  thing  depicted  by  Macmillan  by  a  pathetic  school- 
room selection  2  would  do  well  to  make  a  struggle  after  it. 

We  have  shown,  then,  that  the  part  of  botanical  science  just 
discussed,  as  employed  in  education,  has  not  done,  on  the 
whole,  what  it  should.  It  has  led  to  a  deficient  understanding 
of  the  object  and  scope  of  botany ;  it  has  lacked  a  vitalizing 
point  of  view ;  it  has  brought  the  subject  into  much  discussed 
and  much  to  be  deplored  disrepute.  What  is,  then,  our  con- 
clusion ?  That  \\.  is  the  deficiency  of  this  part  of 

.    .         ,        c  Conclusion  as 

the  subject  for  education,  and  that  therefore  it  must  to  Descriptive 

be  thrown  out  ?  Not  at  all.  The  case  is  perfectly 
clear.  A  true  classification  of  plants  is  an  expression  of  our 
knowledge  of  the  affinities  of  plants  based  upon  the  sum  total 
of  our  knowledge  of  behavior  and  structure  internal  and  ex- 
ternal.3 Not  only  this.  Systematic  botany  has  in  the  past 
played  a  very  important  part  in  exploring  the  range  of  plant 


1  See  Goebel's  Organography,  Chapter  I. 

2  Education,  12  :  460.     April,  1892. 

8  Thiselton-Dyer,  W.  T.,  Address  before  the  Biological  Section  of  the 
British  Association,  S£ptember,  1888.  Coulter,  J.  M.,  The  Future  of 
Systematic  Botany.  Robinson,  B.  L.,  Problems  and  Possibilities  of 
Systematic  Botany. 


106  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

materials,  and  thus  giving  a  stimulus  for  research  in  physiologi- 
cal, morphological,  and  economic  directions.1  It  is  the  oldest 
part  of  botany,  and  from  it,  as  the  branches  from  the  main 
trunk,2  have  sprung  the  other  departments  of  botanical  knowl- 
edge which  therefore  are  not  separate  and  distinct,  but  the 
interdependent  and  interrelated  parts  of  a  whole.  Many  botan- 
ists, moreover,  can  trace  their  permanent,  intelligent  interest  in 
plants  to  an  early  interest  in  collection  and  classification,  and  it 
may  therefore  not  be  said  that  such  interest  is  always  barren  of 
Something  of  results.  To  neglect  this  field  in  elementary  educa- 
SJSfbe**1"1  t'on  wou^  *  conclude,  be  doing  as  much  injustice 
taught.  to  student  and  subject  as  to  neglect  other  parts. 

The  complaint  made  is  directed,  then,  not  at  classification 
properly  apprehended,  but  against  the  teachers  who  have  failed 
in  this  apprehension ;  who  have  themselves  been  blind  to  the 
realities  of  the  subject  and  who  therefore  have  been  "blind 
leaders  of  the  blind."  The  remedy  for  this  pathological 
condition  is  in  the  proper  preparation  of  the  teacher,  and  in 
some  inquiry  into  the  relative  status  of  descriptive  botany  and 
classification  to  other  parts  of  botany,  into  its  educational 
content  and  adaptability  to  the  student,  and  into  the  means  of 
vitalizing  it  with  a  point  of  view  which  makes  for  a  concep- 
tion which  shall  accord  with  the  rest  of  botanical  knowledge. 
How  these  things  are  to  be  done  will  be  treated  in  a  following 
chapter. 

During  recent  years  the  teaching  of  botany  in  the  high 
school  has,  in  some  restricted  quarters,  taken  a  sudden  and 
Advent  of  remarkable  turn  in  the  nature  of  a  reaction  against 
StTtSm^h  the  herbalist  regime.  This  has  been  due  to  the 
School.  better  preparation  of  high-school  teachers  by  uni- 

versity methods,   which  preparation,  however,  has  been  con- 


1  Galloway,  B.  T.,  Applied  Botany :  Retrospective  and  Prospective. 

2  The  student,  in  order  to  gain  an   historical    review,  should   read 
von    Sachs'    History  of  Botany,   Brendel's    Historical    Sketch    of    the 
Science  of  Botany  in  North  America  from  1635-1840,  and  Underwood, 
L.  M.,  The  Last  Quarter  —  a  Reminiscence  and  an  Outlook. 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF  BOTANICAL    COURSES    IO7 

fined  entirely  to  training  in  the  subject,  while  a  study  of  school 
conditions,  and  the  needs  of  pupils  of  high-school  age  was 
entirely  overlooked.  The  result  of  this  one-sided  preparation 
•of  teachers,  which,  however,  was  better  by  far  than  the  insuf- 
ficient preparation  previously  obtained,  has  been  the  infiltration 
of  college  and  university  courses  into  the  high  school.  It  is 
easy  to  see  how  this  has  happened.  A  person  studying  biol- 
ogy by  the  method  inaugurated  chiefly  by  Huxley,  first  in 
England  and  afterwards  by  him  and  his  personal  representative 
Martin,  in  America,  was  placed  in  possession  of  an  array  of 
chiefly  morphological  facts  about  a  series  of  animals  and  plants, 
which,  put  together,  were  intended  to  illustrate  the  hypothetical 
progressive  steps  by  which  organisms  have  passed  through 
in  time  in  producing  the  highly  complex  types  of  the  present 
day.  To  substantiate  the  fact  of  evolution  was  the  chief  aim 
of  such  a  course.  The  method  of  study  was  ordinarily  that 
of  verification,  while  the  development  of  individual  initiative  in 
thought  and  act  was  largely  ignored.  There  have  been  notable 
exceptions  to  the  general  rule,  it  is  true,  the  most  notable  of 
which  was  the  method  of  Agassiz,  which  has  been  recently 
described  by  Beal.1  Agassiz's  method  consisted  in  stripping  a 
man  of  pride  and  support  by  bringing  him  into  direct  contact 
with  some  form,  such  as  a  starfish,  and  leaving  him  Method  of 
to  find  out  things  for  himself  without  aid  of  any  Agassiz. 
kind.  This  was  heroic  treatment,  and  the  product  was  commen- 
surate with  his  method.  It  is  obvious,  however,  that  such  tactics 
have  restricted  application  and  cannot  be  employed  generally. 

For  the  most  part,  however,  the  method  of  verification,  with 
the  explicit  directions  for  observation  and,  when  necessary, 
dissection,  found  in  a  laboratory  manual,  was  that  employed. 
The  student  examined  a  series  of  "  types/''  from  which  circum- 
stance such  a  course  has  come  to  be  called  a  "  type  course.'*' 
The  comparison  of  the  form  studied,  the  significance  of  the 
similarities  and  differences  as  a  basis  for  phylogenetic  arrange- 


1  How  Shall  a  Young  Person  Study  Botany  ? 


108  THE   TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

ments  of  organisms,  —  in  brief,  the  thinking  part  of  the  work,  was 
usually  done  by  the  instructor  and  discovered  to  the  student 
through  the  medium  of  the  lecture,  so  that,  with  ordinary 
intelligence,  the  large  ideas  involved  were  obtained  and,  to  a 
degree,  appreciated  without  the  acquisition  by  the  student  of 
the  independence  of  effort  and  judgment  which  should  char- 
acterize the  work  of  an  efficient  teacher.  In  the  minds  of 
such,  the  type  course  became  a  sort  of  alpha  and  omega  of 
biological  training  in  high  school  as  well  as  college,  while  it  is 
in  the  latter  alone  that  such  work,  properly  managed,  belongs. 
As  a  consequence,  when  the  newly  fledged  Bachelor  or  Master, 
or  much  less  frequently,  Doctor,  passed  into  his  life  work  as  a 
teacher — in  the  event  that  teaching  did  not  happen  to  be 
a  convenient  stepping-stone  to  "something  better "  —  he, 
without  a  thought  as  to  the  fitness  of  things,  offered  the  same 
course  which  to  him,  it  is  only  justice  to  say,  appeared  to  be 
rich  in  thought  and  significance.  He  gave  a  type  course  in 
the  high  school.  He  assumed  that  what  appealed  to  his 
maturer  mind  would  appeal  with  equal  force  to  the  mind 
of  a  young  pupil.  He  saw  no  reason  why  the  difficult  micro- 
scopic work  necessitated  at  the  very  outset  and  continually 
throughout  the  course  was  not  equally  adaptable  to  the  work 
of  the  high  school,  unless  perchance  the  absence  of  microscopes 
offered  an  unanswerable  one.  The  absence  of  physiological 
treatment,  and  of  the  point  of  view,  so  necessary  to  the  con- 
ception of  the  evolution  of  living  organisms,  was  not  appre- 
ciated. The  course  became  in  his  hands  one  in  comparative 
minute  anatomy,  more  or  less  beyond  the  comprehension  of 
his  students.  Laboratory  manual  and  text-books  adapted  to 
the  college  were  used,  and  the  whole  resembled  a  badly  fitting 
suit  of  clothes ;  for  though  it  lacked  the  necessary  features  of 
adaptation,  it  answered  the  immediate  purpose.  It  did  at  least 
some  things  which  are  definitely  good  to  do.  In  using  types  of 
both  plants  and  animals,  it  pointed  out  that  these  are  to  be 
compared  in  order  to  a  fair  understanding  of  natural  history ; 
it  has  thus  helped  to  raise  the  study  of  plants  from  effeminacy 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF  BOTANICAL    COURSES    IOQ 

to  a  place  of  some  dignity  in  education.     It  showed  to  those 
ignorant  of  it  that   plants  and  animals  are  on  a  parity  in  the 

organic  creation,  and  that  both  must  be  understood 

,     ,     .          ,          ,     ,  .     .  ,      .     Gocd  Results 

comparatively  before  the  whole  truth  is  to  be  had.   of  Type 

It  has  showed,  moreover,  that  there  is  some  other 
way  of  studying  plants  than  by  examining  the  outsides  of  some 
of  them  guided  by  an  analytical  key.  And  it  was  not  long  till 
some  of  the  botanists  who  were  awake  to  the  circumstances 
took  the  hint  and  prepared  manuals  for  the  laboratory  study 
of  plants  alone  after  the  method  of  Huxley  and  Martin. 

We  may  now  examine  the  type  course  with  reference  to  its 
efficiency  in  the  secondary  school,  and  to  this  end  we  must 

point  out  that  there  have  been  two  methods  of  pre- 

Two  Subsidi- 
senting  it,  according  to  the  way  in  which  it  was   ary  Methods 

approached.     One  of  these  is  the  so-called  "  logical  the  Type 
method  "  —  the  method  which  takes  it  for  granted 
that  the  arrangement  of  ideas  parallel  to  the  progression  of  evo- 
lution, as  illustrated  by  various  forms  from  simple  to  complex,  is 
the   only  really  logical  method.     The  advocates  of  this  view 
appear  to  have  forgotten,  or  possibly  have  never   simple  to 
appreciated,  the  fact  that  this  arrangement  is  one   ComPlex' 
which  expresses  a  subjective  idea  which  was  gained  by  natural- 
ists who  themselves  did  not  approach  the  subject  in  this  way. 
By  this  method,  the  study  of  types  was  begun  by  the  examina- 
tion of  the  simple  forms,  and  because  they  are  simple  structu- 
rally, the  student  was  misled  into  believing,  on  a  priori  grounds, 
that  their  physiology  is  as  simple.     As  the  study  advanced  the 
physiological  questions  were   gradually  lost   sight  of  and   the 
structural  ones  usurped  its  place. 

By  the  second  method,  which  was  later  adopted  by  Huxley.1 
the  examination  of  types  was  approached  from  the  other  end  of 
the  series,  and  the  complex  forms  were   studied   complex  to 
first.     Aside  from  the  fact  that  the  physiology  of  the    SimPle- 
simple  forms  is  really  very  complex  and  difficult  to  understand, 


1  See   preface  by  Huxley,    T.  H.,  to  Huxley  and  Martin's  Practical 
Biology.     London  and  New  York.     The  Macmillan  Co.,  1892. 


110  THE   TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

a  further  reason  especially  pertinent  to  the  high-school  prob- 
lem, is,  that  the  distress  and  floundering  which  is  unavoidable 
when  a  young  student  is  put  to  work  on  a  completely  strange 
set  of  objects,  the  seeing  of  which  even  involves  the  use  of 
an  instrument  which  makes  them  still  more  strange,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  technical  difficulties  to  be  overcome,  are  in 
this  way  obviated.  The  student  begins  with  the  relatively 
known  and  proceeds  to  investigate  the  unknown  by  natural 
psychological  steps.  On  the  assumption  that  the  type  course  is 
the  only  one  which  is  properly  adapted  to  the  high  school,  the 
second  of  these  subsidiary  methods  is  undoubtedly  the  better, 
and  this  we  shall  have  to  keep  in  mind  when  we  consider  below 
the  advantages  offered  by  a  different  arrangement  of  the  study. 
The  good  points  of  the  type  course,  laying  aside  the  distinc- 
tion of  methods  of  approach,  are  somewhat  as  follows.  I 

do  not  attempt  to  make  any  distinction  between 
of  Type  the  type  course  as  embracing  plants  and  animals, 

or  as  confined  to  plants,  although  we  are  concerned 
here  especially  with  the  latter.  The  study  was  directed,  not 
only  at  external  features,  but  at  internal  structures  as  well.  The 
examination  of  characters  was  not  carried  on  with  the  object  of 
determining  a  name  by  a  comparison  with  a  descriptive  diagnosis. 
Indeed  the  name  was  given  at  once,  and  no  reference  to  classi- 
fication in  a  narrow  sense  was  made.  The  study  was,  therefore, 
compared  with  the  older  method  of  descriptive  botany,  more 
intensive  and  thorough.  Fewer  types  were  studied  and  these 
more  deeply.  The  comparative  method  of  study,  so  far  as  it  was 
carried  out,  involved,  as  it  should,  the  comparison  of  structural 
features  of  the  organisms  themselves,  each  with  the  other. 
The  study  was  on  the  whole  a  study  of  related  things  and  not 
of  isolated  objects.  Again,  the  facts  observed  by  this  method  of 
comparison, — albeit  the  comparisons  were  by  the  instructor 
rather  than  the  student,  were  subjected  to  interpretation  in 
terms  of  the  theory  of  descent,  and  a  large  idea  of  this  kind, 
lying  as  it  does  at  the  bottom  of  the  modern  interpretation  of  all 
scientific  phenomena,  if  only  dimly  apprehended,  is  distinctly 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF  BOTANICAL   COURSES    III 

better  than  none.  These  facts,  handled  in  this  way,  involved 
the  principles  of  classification  in  a  broad  sense,  a  true  classifica- 
tion expressing  ideas  of  genetic  relationship  rather  than  a  con- 
venient arbitrary  system  of  cataloguing.  And  this  view  of  the 
matter  again,  if  indeed  somewhat  hazy,  is  better  than  a  much 
more  detailed  one  of  an  artificial  arrangement.  Thus  we  may 
say  that,  on  the  whole,  the  course  made  for  very  marked  im- 
provement in  botany  teaching,  and  this  may  be  attributed  in 
large  part  to  the  influence  of  the  master  teacher  and  investigator 
Huxley,  who  saw  in  plants  as  in  animals  materials  of  equal 
importance  for  education. 

But,  in  spite  of  these  very  good  points,  there  are  grave  de- 
fects in  the  type  course  if  we  consider  it  from  our  present  point 
of  view,  quite  apart  from  its  place  in  a  scheme  of 
biological  instruction  in  the  college  and  university.  x^pfconweJ6 
For  the  secondary  school  it  is  deficient  because,  on 
the  side  of  the  science  and  of  the  needs  of  the  pupil  it  is  un- 
representative and  insufficient.  In  its  more  extreme  forms  it 
neglects  largely  the  physiological  aspects  of  biology  and  ignores 
the  experimental  side  entirely.  It  deals  scarcely  at  all  with  the 
correlation  of  the  morphological  and  physiological  phenomena 
in  such  a  way  as  to  bring  out  the  ecological  or  natural  history 
phases  of  the  study.  This  is  true  also  of  the  economic,  and 
with  it,  of  the  informational  content,  which  are  thus  reduced  to 
a  minimum.  It  deals  with  a  certain  set  of  forms,  and  largely 
neglects  the  mass  of  materials  more  easily  available,  and  so 
loses  the  out-of-doors  point  of  view.  On  the  side  of  method, 
while  trying  to  insist  upon  comparison,  and  a  broad  interpreta- 
tion of  facts,  the  way  in  which  these  facts  are  obtained  is  by 
the  process  of  verification  in  which  the  true  comparative 
method  is  often  obscured  by  substituting  for  it  a  comparison  of 
plant  and  description.  It  therefore  often  falls  into  a  fitting  of 
the  type  to  the  book,  and  this,  of  itself,  is  little  better  than  the 
similar  business  of  the  herbalist.  The  intellectual  effort  of  the 
student  is  therefore  often  reduced  to  the  attempt  to  see  what 
the  book  calls  for ;  they  often  do  so,  facts  to  the  contrary  not- 


112  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

withstanding.  This  has  been  true  even  of  college  work,  and, 
as  would  be  expected,  much  more  so  of  that  in  high  schools. 
It  becomes  a  mere  training  of  the  senses,  rather  than  of  the 
powers  of  acquiring  knowledge,  —  the  power  of  searching  out  for 
one's  self  and  of  putting  facts  together. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  study  of  forms  in  the  more  intensive 
way  characteristic  of  the  type  method  has,  however,  a  definite 

claim  on  the  time  devoted  in  the  high  school  to 
Some  Study 

in  the  Type  botany.  In  it  lies  the  basis  for  a  broad  conception 
Method  neces-  _1  .  . 

saryinthe  of  affinities  and  hence  of  true  classification.  It 
High  School.  ,.  ,  r  i  i  ,  •  /•  i 

supplies,  therefore,  a  broad  basis  for  the  apprecia- 
tion of  the  idea  of  evolution.  For  these  reasons,  if  for  no 
other,  a  series  of  types  should  be  studied.  I  should,  however, 
insist  upon  a  physiological  viewpoint,  not  only  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  experimental  work,  but  by  the  study  of  general  adaptive 
characters,  e.  g.,  of  water  and  land  plants,  with  an  attempt  to 
show  some  evidence  for  the  supposition  that  is  generally  enter- 
tained that  the  former  have  been  derived  phylogenetically  from 
the  latter.  Whatever  the  methods  of  change  by  which  the 
forms  of  the  present  have  been  derived  from  those  of  the  past, 
the  fact  of  change  is  indubitable.  The  grand  conception  of  a 
movement  of  advancing  and  retreating  forms  through  unmeas- 
ured eons  of  time  is  one  which  is  eminently  worth  while  to 
have.  To  this  end  the  idea  of  change  must  be  constantly  em- 
phasized, and  in  the  forms  assumed  by  plants  we  must  see  the 
registration  of  this  change.  We  come,  therefore,  to  the  point 
heretofore  and  repeatedly  accentuated,  that  a  dynamic  view- 
point must  be  had.  Just  as  the  one  who  puts  together  the 
facts  observed  in  the  furrowed,  rounded  knobs  of  protruding 
rock,  sees  in  imagination  a  glacier  of  thousands  of  feet  in 
depth  sweeping  irresistibly  overhead,  so  he  who  contemplates 
a  series  of  types  should  be  led  to  picture  in  his  mind  that 
current  of  life  sweeping  down  from  the  past  to  the  future, 
branching,  eddying,  changing,  flowing  together,  but  which  is 
still  going  onward  into  an  unknown  beyond.  Can  this  be  done 
for  him  whose  opportunity  to  receive  this  legacy  of  thought  is 


VARIOUS   TYPES  OF  BOTANICAL   COURSES    113 

perhaps  limited  to  one  year  of  the  high  school?  Some  will 
doubt  it,  but  I  believe  that  it  can  and  should  be  done.  The 
teacher's  success  depends  upon  the  grasp  of  his  mind,  on  the 
power  of  his  own  constructive  imagination,  and  on  his  ability  to 
turn  on  the  light  of  inquiry  upon  the  materials  at  hand. 

Further  matters  of  method  will  not  at  present  be  discussed. 
It  is  my  purpose  to  return  later  to  the  question  of  what  types 
may  most  profitably  be  used,  the  use  which  may  be  made  of 
them,  what  the  relation  shall  be  between  this  part  of  botany 
and  the  other  large  divisions  of  the  subject,  and  what  the 
method  of  approach. 

Another  form  of  type  course  which  was  originally  planned 
for  introductory  students  in  biology  in  the  college  should  be 
mentioned  here  because  of  its  adoption  by  some  teachers  into 
the  high  school,  but  not  because  of  its  real  adaptability  to 
secondary  work.  I  refer  to  the  course  which  is  based  upon 
the  comparative  study  of  two  types  of  organisms,  one  a  plant 
and  the  other  an  animal.1  No  doubt  that  the  j-ern_Earth- 
course  can  be  made  in  the  hands  of  a  thorough  worm  Course, 
naturalist  of  good  training  in  botany  and  zoology  one  of  very 
great  value  and  significance  to  college  students  under  special 
conditions.  That  it  should  have  been  adopted  as  a  high-school 
course  is  from  the  viewpoint  of  botany  unfortunate  for  several 
reasons. 

It  is  in  the  first  place  too  difficult  a  course  for  pupils  of  the 
high-school  age,  both  in  technique  and  in  subject-matter.  In 
regard  to  the  former  there  is  relatively  too  great  a  proportion 
of  time  and  effort  expended  upon  microscopic  work  to  which 
objections  are  urged  elsewhere.  It  is  also  unsound  pedagogi- 
cally  in  beginning  with  an  extended  study  of  the  cell. 

The  objections  on  the  ground  of  the  subject-matter  are  still 
more  grave.  The  basis  for  the  course  is  found  chiefly  in  two 
types  —  one  of  plants  and  one  of  animals.  This  of  course  re- 
sults in  an  extreme  form  of  "  type  "  study,  with  a  disadvantage 


1  Sedgvvick  and  Wilson,  General  Biology. 

8 


114  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

in  developing  in  the  pupil  only  a  very  inefficient  and  false  point 
of  view,  a  difficulty  when  dealing  with  high-school  pupils  scarcely 
to  be  overcome  even  by  a  skilful  and  competent  teacher,  while 
by  a  group  of  students  of  above  the  average  intelligence  with 
such  a  teacher  some  broad  notions  of  the  problems  and  scope 
of  biology  may  be  obtained.  A  general  view  of  the  plant  and 
animal  series,  which  cannot  as  an  aim  for  high-school  work  be 
ignored,  is  well-nigh  impossible  unless  the  information  is  sup- 
plied by  the  teacher.  But  this  defeats  again  the  end  desired, 
by  supplying  too  narrow  a  basis  in  the  experience  of  the  pupil, 
with  the  result  that  the  study  tends  to  become  an  act  of  ordi- 
nary memorizing. 

Furthermore,  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  botanist  the  repre- 
sentation of  the  plant  kingdom  by  a  fern  has  little  in  its  favor. 
Anatomically  the  ferns  are  a  widely  aberrant  group,  and  as  the 
intensive  study  of  the  type  brings  much  stress  to  bear  upon  the 
anatomy,  it  is  obvious  that  quite  wrong  general  impressions  are 
received.  These  have  usually  been  allowed  to  stand  uncor- 
rected,  since  the  teachers  who  have  adopted  the  course  have 
usually  been  primarily  zoologists  and  therefore  much  more  con- 
cerned with  the  animal  side  of  the  study.  While  the  intention 
of  those  who  originated  the  method  was  to  compare  animal 
and  plant  biology,  the  general  effort  of  less  able  teachers  has 
been  to  show  by  this  comparison  that  the  animal  aspect  of  the 
study  is  the  one  really  worth  while. 

Undoubtedly  the  one  desirable  feature  of  the  fern  as  a  type 
lies  in  the  clear  example  it  gives  of  alternation  of  generations  in 
plants  ;  this  subject,  however,  from  a  botanical  viewpoint,  can  be 
little  understood  without  a  comparative  study  of  different  plants  ; 
and  when  the  comparison  is  with  an  animal  such  as  the  earth- 
worm, where  no  such  phenomenon  is  known  to  obtain,  the 
produced  contrast  of  positive  and  negative  characters  serves 
to  isolate  the  types  in  the  mind  rather  than  to  emphasize  the 
lesson  of  a  common  field  of  inquiry. 

Beyond  this  advantage,  however,  the  fern  as  a  type  of  plants 
in  general  little  deserves  an  apologetic.  It  is  a  highly  spe- 


VARIOUS   TYPES  OF  BOTANICAL   COURSES    115 

cialized  and  aberrant  type.  This  is  shown  in  the  general 
arrangement  of  the  vascular  tissue  and  in  the  character  of  the 
scalariform  elements.  The  stem  of  the  type  used,  Pteridium 
(Pteris)  aquilinum,  is  horizontal,  and  the  growth  of  leaf  from 
an  apical  cell  is  not  typical,  nor  in  a  wide  sense  is  the  simi- 
lar growth  of  the  stem.  For  the  high  school,  therefore,  we 
conclude  that  the  fern-earthworm  course  has  little  to  recommend 
it  and  is  open  to  many  grave  objections.  It  is  in  no  sense  the 
kind  of  a  course  for  young  pupils  who  will  presumably  have 
no  other  opportunity  for  the  study  of  botany. 

A  distinct  advance  upon  the  courses  heretofore  described 
came  with  the  recognition  of  the  importance  of  the  principle 

that  all  parts  of  the  science  of  botany  should  be 

Various 
represented    by  the   study    of    their    fundamental  Parts  of 

Botany  sep- 

knowledge  content.     A  very  good  expression  of  the   arateiy  rep- 
attempt  to  do  this   is  to  be  seen  in  the  book  of 
Barnes,1  a  brief  survey    of  the  plan  of   which   will   give    the 
reader  a  good  idea  of  the  arrangement  of  such  a  course. 

Commencing  with  a  study  of  the  cell  sufficient  to  gain  an 
idea  of  its  more  obvious  features,  the  pupil  passes  on  to 
an  examination  of  types  from  the  simple  to  the  complex, 
which  are  selected  to  illustrate  the  evolution  of  the  plant 
body,  commencing  with  the  lower  forms.  Then  follows  the  part 
treating  of  the  physiology  of  plants,  the  subject  of  reproduction 
being  dealt  with  separately  from  a  morphological  point  of  view, 
and  in  a  manner  analogous  to  the  treatment  of  the  plant 
body.  Asexual  and  sexual  reproduction  are  distinctly  sepa- 
rated, and  this  leads  to  a  clear  distinction  between  them.  In 
the  final  part  the  attention  is  directed  to  ecology,  or  the  study 
of  plant  adaptation,  while  the  matter  of  classification  is  practi- 
cally laid  aside.2  In  the  briefer  edition,  for  practical  reasons 

1  Barnes,  C.  R.,  Plant  Life.     New  York.     1898. 

2  Approximately  the  same  sort  of  a  course  has  been  outlined  by  Clem- 
ents and  Cutter  in   A  Laboratory  Manual  of  High  School  Botany  (Lin- 
coln, Neb.,  1900),  for  the  schools  of  Nebraska,  although  I    understand 
that  it  has  proved  somewhat  too  difficult  for  the  majority  of  schools  in 
that  State. 


Il6  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

less    attention   is   paid    to    minute    anatomy   and    to    sexual 
reproduction.1 

It  will  be  seen  at  a  glance  that  the  author  recognizes  the  im- 
portance of  giving  a  fair  and  well-proportioned  view  of  the  field, 
and  his  efforts  are  successful  so  far  as  they  go.  The  entire 
neglect  of  classification  is  regarded  by  some  as  an  insufficiency, 
a  criticism  partly  justified.  And  the  insistence  on  the  necessity 
of  beginning  the  study  of  types  with  the  unicellular  form  offers 
an  objection  which  will  be  discussed  beyond.  Aside  from  these 
the  only  matter  for  consideration  is  the  question  of  how  the 
parts  of  the  subject  should  be  related  to  each  other  in  the 
course.  Of  this,  Barnes  says  : 

"  The  work  in  plant  physiology  may  be  presented  either  in  con- 
nection with  the  study  of  morphology  or  may  follow  it  as  an 
independent  division  of  botany.  In  my  judgment  it  makes  little 
difference  which  of  these  two  methods  is  pursued.  Both  have  strong 
advocates,  the  former  especially  being  the  favorite  of  those  who 
speak  from  a  theoretical  standpoint.  It  may  be  pointed  out,  how- 
ever, that  if  one  wishes  to  introduce  the  study  of  absorption  after 
a  consideration  of  the  root,  and  to  illustrate  transpiration  and 
photosynthesis  after  the  examination  of  the  leaves,  there  can  be  no 
serious  objection  to  it,  provided  certain  dangers  of  omission  are 
guarded  against.  Too  often  thus  the  leaves  are  left  out  of  con- 
sideration as  absorbing  organs,  absorption  being  associated  wholly 
with  the  study  of  roots.  In  reality,  however,  the  absorption  of  gases 
by  the  leaves  is  of  quite  as  much  importance  as  any  absorption 
by  roots."8 

We  have  already  discussed  in  Chapter  III.  the  issue  here 
stated,  and  we  shall  meet  it  again  in  examining  the  claims  of  the 
course  which  we  pass  on  now  to  examine. 

The  consideration  of  .the  reader  is  now  directed  to  a 
third  type  of  botanical  course  which  is  of  later  development 
than  the  preceding,  and  which  offers  advantages  in  scope 
and  arrangement  which  have  been  wanting  in  the  others. 


1  Outlines  of  Plant  Life.     New  York.     1900. 

3  Barnes,  C.  R.,  Plant  Physiology  in  the  High  School. 


VARIOUS    TYPES   OF  BOTANICAL   COURSES    1 1/ 

A  course  of  this  kind  consists  of  the  best  knowledge  which  the 
science  of  botany  has  to  offer  in  the  fields  of  morphology, 
physiology,  classification,  and  ecology,  correlated  in  The  synthetic 
such  a  manner  that  their  interrelations  are  brought  Course- 
out.  In  this  way,  if  the  course  is  properly  carried  out,  a  dynamic 
viewpoint  is  made  dominant.  Such  an  arrangement  of  botanical 
study  has  been  called  by  Ganong  l  "  synthetic,"  and  it  has  gained 
an  increasingly  wider  acceptance  as  the  best  sort,  largely  through 
the  use  of  the  excellent  book  for  high  schools  by  Bergen,2  and 
through  the  vigorous  defence  of  the  ideas  involved  by  Ganong 
(loc.  tit.),  but  while  the  fullest  present  expression  of  the  method 
is  due  to  the  efforts  of  these  two  in  the  educational  field,  the 
idea  has  been  more  or  less  fully  carried  out,  though  not  always 
in  the  same  way,  nor  to  the  same  degree  of  effectiveness,  by 
Spalding,3  Setchell,4  and  Atkinson,5  in  books  which  are  adapted 
chiefly  to  the  abilities  of  college  students,  but  of  which  one  (At- 
kinson) appeared  in  abridged  and  simplified  form  better 
adapted  to  secondary  students. 

The  position  of  the  advocates  of  this  method  has  been  re- 
cently materially  strengthened  by  the  acceptance  of  its  essential 
features  as  embodied  in  a  Report 6  of  a  committee  appointed 
by  the  Society  for  Plant  Morphology  and  Physiology  by  that 
body,  and  also  by  the  adoption  of  this  Report  as  a  standard 
college  entrance  option  by  the  College  Entrance  Board  of  the 
Middle  States  and  Maryland. 

The  central  motive  of  the  synthetic  course  is  the  thought 
that  the  best  results  from  the  standpoint  of  general  education 
and  of  training  in  the  scientific  methods  of  observation  and 
thought,  as  well  as  of  the  best  representation  of  the  subject, 
are  to  be  obtained  by  correlating  closely  morphological  and 


1  The  Teaching  Botanist. 

2  Bergen,  J.  Y.,  Foundations  of  Botany.     Last  edition. 

3  Introduction  to  Botany. 

*  Laboratory  Practice  for  Beginners  in  Botany. 

5  Elementary  Botany. 

6  School  Science.     May,  1902. 


Il8  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

physiological  study,  thus  bringing  together  in  the  mind  the 
things  which  stand  in  close  relation  to  each  other  in  nature, 
namely,  form  and  structure  and  behavior  and  function.  There 

are  two  types  of  the  synthetic  course  determined 
Two  Types  of 
Synthetic         by  the  dominant  viewpoint  held.     In  the  one,  the 

basis  of  the  work  is  morphological,  and  those  who 
adopt  this  method  take  the  view  with  Ganong  that  "  physio- 
logical experiments  most  profitably  come  along  with  the  par- 
ticular structures  which  they  explain."  1  It  is  argued  that  the 
best  results  are  obtained  when  the  attention  of  the  student  is 
directed  first  to  the  structure  and  form.  By  careful  observa- 
tion an  accurate  notion  is  obtained  of  the  machinery,  and  the 
question  then  follows  in  a  natural  way,  why  the  machinery  is 
arranged  as  it  is,  that  is,  what  activities  of  the  plant  have  pro- 
duced a  given  form  and  structure,  and  what  is  the  value  of 
these  to  the  plant. 

The  second  type  of  synthetic  course  is  one  which  reverses 
the  relations  of  morphology.  While  the  one  regards  morphol- 
ogy from  the  physiological  viewpoint,  the  second  regards  physi- 
ology primarily  and  looks  for  morphological  knowledge  to  come 
incidentally.  The  chief  advocate  of  this  method  is  Atkinson, 
whose  defence  I  quote  : 

"  The  method  which  I  have  found  successful  is  to  begin  with  a 
study  of  the  vegetative  life  processes  of  plants,  or  physiology,  thus 
dealing  largely  with  function.  Since  some  knowledge  of  form  must 
accompany  a  study  of  function,  the  pupil  gains  by  necessity  some 
knowledge  of  morphology  while  studying  life  processes."  2 

If  we  strike  a  balance  of  results  attained  by  these  two 
methods  of  dealing  with  a  synthetic  course,  we  should  find 
very  little  to  be  said.  In  the  hands  of  a  good  teacher,  either 
would  be  productive  of  good  results,  since  both  are  vitalized 
by  a  dynamic  viewpoint. 

Some  differences  are,  however,  to  be  noted,  and  these  are  of 


1  The  Teaching  Botanist,  p.  37. 

2  Atkinson,  G.  F.,  '98. 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF  BOTANICAL   BOURSES    119 

considerable  weight  in  determining  which  method  is  chosen. 
They  are  not  necessary  differences,  to  be  sure,  but  rather  such 
as  have  in  practice  characterized  the  carrying  out  of  the 
methods  by  those  who  have  adopted  either  one  or  the  other. 

Those  who  approach  the  subject  on  the  morphological 
basis  have  usually  chosen  the  seed  1  as  the  starting-point. 
The  reasons  for  this  are  the  following  :  First,  it  is 
urged  that  an  elementary  course,  especially  for 


young  students,  should  begin  with  things  of  some 
degree  of  familiarity;  that  to  begin  with  remote  and  un- 
familiar or  entirely  unknown  objects,  Spirogyra,  for  example, 
as  is  proposed  by  the  second  method  described,  is  to  surround 
the  pupil  with  so  many  difficulties,  and  to  introduce  him  to  so 
many  strange  things  and  ideas  at  once  as  to  bewilder  and 
discourage  him,  and  this  is  obviously  not  improved  by  the 
necessity  of  using  the  microscope  which  introduces  difficulties 
of  interpretation  which  cannot  be  avoided. 

"To  begin  a  course  with  objects  needing  the  use  of  the  com- 
pound microscope,  that  is,  to  introduce  the  use  of  the  most  special 
tool  before  eye  and  hand  have  had  some  training  by  themselves,  is 
not  only  illogical  in  theory,  but,  as  I  and  many  other  teachers  know 
from  experience,  wasteful  in  practice.  It  produces  a  long  and  de- 
spairing floundering  about  from  which  balance  and  stability  are 
but  slowly  regained.  Moreover,  it  impresses  a  wrong  ideal  of 
scientific  work,  implying  as  it  does  that  there  is  some  sovereign 
virtue  in  elaborate  instruments,  thus  tending  to  elevate  these 
to  a  rank  above  their  proper  grade  of  mere  aids  to  eye  and 
hand."  2 

This  argument  is,  of  course,  equally  applicable  to  the  "  type 
course,"  which  is  begun  by  the  study  of  simple  forms  of  life 
first,  as  I  have  above  shown.  Certainly  the  argument  is  a 
good  one  if  botany  is  given  to  pupils  in  the  earlier  high-school 
years,  for  the  treatment  in  the  Elementary  Botany  of  Atkin- 


1  I  have  myself  advocated  beginning  with  the  fruit.      Teachers  Col- 
lege Record,  Vol.  II.,  No.  I. 

2  Ganong,    The    Teaching  Botanist,   p.  34.     see   also   the  Preface   to 
Huxley  and  Martin's  Practical  Biology. 


120  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

son  is  without  doubt  too  difficult  and  abstruse  for  them,  a  con- 
cession implied  in  the  later  publication  of  his  Lessons  in 
Botany,  the  treatment  in  which  approaches  more  nearly  that 
of  Bergen  and  Ganong,  and  which  is  better  adapted  to  second- 
ary students. 

Secondly,  it  is  held  that  the  study  of  several  types  of  seeds 
or  fruits  gives  a  better  training  in  simple,  exact  observation 

and  in  the  habits  of  comparison,  by  offering  mor- 
Seed  the 
Better  start-    phological  problems  of  a  fair  amount  of  ease,  but 

demanding,  nevertheless,  careful  discrimination  of 
essential  and  non-essential  characters,  and  thus  leading  the 
students  to  proper  morphological  conceptions  based  upon 
comparison.  Of  this  Ganong  says  : 

"  Next  among  the  scientific  instincts  I  would  place  that  for  criti- 
cal comparison  and  generalization,  the  morphological  instinct.  It 
consists  both  in  a  power  to  compare  a  series  and  eliminate  what  is 
individual  and  unimportant  from  what  is  common  to  a  number  and 
important,  and  also  in  a  power,  by  comparison  of  different  stages 
of  development,  to  trace  back  differing  forms  to  their  common 
origin,  or  similar  forms  to  their  different  origins,  as  the  case  may 
be.  For  training  in  this  power,  so  important  in  all  phases  of 
human  activity,  nothing  is  better  than  morphology,  the  introduction 
to  which  is  best  made  through  forms  which  are  large  and  plain 
enough  to  need  no  tools,  but  only  the  unaided  eye  and  thought. 
For  this  the  embryos  in  seeds,  which  show  homologous  parts  under 
the  greatest  diversity  of  size  and  form,  are  particularly  good,  espe- 
cially since  they  may  so  easily  be  traced  through  stages  of  germina- 
tion and  growth  where  actual  proof  of  their  analogies  and  some  of 
their  homologies  may  be  found."  x 

At  the  same  time,  seeds  and  developing  seedlings  are 
excellent  material  for  use  in  exemplifying  fundamental  physi- 
ological processes  on  the  one  hand  and  adaptive  movements 
and  structures  on  the  other.  The  co-ordinate  treatment  of 
these  various  aspects  of  botanical  study  when  based  on  these 
materials  is  so  natural  and  effectual,  and  can  with  no  serious 
difficulty  and  with  no  aspect  of  forcing,  be  made  so  interesting, 


1   The  Teaching  Botanist,  p.  34. 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF  BOTANICAL    COURSES    121 

that  it  is  not  easy  to  see  how  an  introduction  to  botany  could 
better  be  made.  Nevertheless,  some  advance  the  objection 
that  high-school  boys  will  not  regard  seriously  a  course  in 
botany  to  which  they  are  led  by  beginning  with  seeds  —  that 
it  does  not  appeal  to  them  as  worth  while,  and  so  they  look  at 
it  with  disrespect.  This  is  probably  true  in  the  later  years  of 
the  high  school,  more  so  even  than  of  the  earlier  college  years, 
and  to  overcome  this  calls  for  a  strong  personal  equation  in 
the  teacher.  And  it  might  also  be  objected  that  some  of  the 
facts  should  be  familiar  to  the  pupil  through  his  grammar- 
school  work,  which  might  very  well  be  true.  Neither  of  these 
objections  can,  however,  be  regarded  as  very  weighty  ones. 
The  latter  could  be  met  in  an  ideal  school  by  properly  grading 
the  work,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  this  should  be  done. 
The  former  recognizes  a  supercilious  attitude  on  the  part  of 
the  pupil  which  should  be  overcome  by  the  skill  of  the  teacher. 
It  would  seem,  therefore,  that  a  choice  between  these  two 
methods  will  usually  be  determined  according  to  the  circum- 
stances with  which  a  teacher  finds  himself  surrounded,  and  by 
his  convictions  as  to  what  method  of  approach  is  the  better. 
I  am  myself  of  the  opinion  that  for  the  high  school  the  method 
of  beginning  with  the  more  familiar  objects  such  as  fruits 
or  seeds  is  pedagogically  the  better  of  the  two,  especially  if, 
as  often  happens,  the  course  in  botany  extends  only  over  half 
a  year.  The  ideas  which  should  grow  out  of  high-school  study 
must  be  scientific  ideas,  and  these,  in  spite  of  some  degree  of 
familiarity  with  the  material,  are  sufficiently  unfamiliar  to  the 
student  to  give  him  vigorous  mental  work  if  he  is  properly  led 
to  it  and  if  the  right  kind  of  problems  are  given  him  to  solve. 
And  I  have  decided  on  this  course  in  spite  of  the  unhappy 
experience  of  finding  that  students  in  many  cases  had  the 
attitude  towards  work  on  seeds  above  mentioned.  The  method 
employed  was  in  appearance  to  ignore  the  pupil's  attitude,  and 
to  adjust  the  recitation  so  that  the  ignorance  of  such  persons 
was  laid  bare.  It  is  usually  not  long  before  they  are  disabused 
of  their  prejudices. 


122  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

There  have  now  been  examined  and  criticised  all  the  main 
Summary  and  tyP65  °f  botany  courses,  or  courses  involving 
Conclusion.  botany,  which  have  at  any  time  had  any  large 
amount  of  recognition.  These  may,  by  way  of  summary,  be 
mentioned  as  follows  : 

1.  The    herbalist    type  —  consisting   chiefly  of    collecting   a 

limited  number  of  the  flowering  plants  and  of  analyzing 
and  naming  them.  A  small  amount  of  text-book  work 
on  physiology  was  sometimes,  though  seldom,  added. 

2.  The  "type  course,"  consisting  of   a  study  of  a  series  of 

plant  and  animal  forms,  or  of  plant  forms  alone,  selected 
to  illustrate  the  course  of  evolution.  The  order  was 
sometimes  reversed,  and  physiological  matters  were 
largely  absent. 

3.  The  plant  and  animal  type   course  —  making   two  forms 

studied  comparatively  the  basis  for  a  course  in  elemen- 
tary biology. 

4.  The  course  taking  up  the  great  divisions  of  the  science, 

morphology,  physiology,  classification,  and  ecology. 
Characterized  chiefly  by  lack  of  co-ordination,  and 
usually  by  the  abeyance  of  classification. 

The  last  three  represent  a  reaction  from  the  first  type  of 
course. 

5.  The  synthetic  course,  an  advance  upon  (4)  in  that  greater 

emphasis  is  laid  upon  the  correlation  of  morphology  and 
physiology.  Hence  a  dynamic  point  of  view  is  taken 
and  carried  out,  though  this  point  of  view  is  not  neces- 
sarily absent  from  (4)  or  even  from  the  others.  In  point 
of  fact,  however,  it  usually  has  been. 

Viewed  historically,  these  courses  stand  in  the  order  above 
given,  (i)  being  the  oldest,  (4)  and  (5)  being  modern  ex- 
pressions of  practice  and  of  differences  of  opinion.  It  is  not 
my  purpose  to  pass  final  judgment  upon  the  merits  of  these 
two  as  compared  with  each  other.  Opinion  and  experience 
among  secondary  teachers,  and  among  those  most  competent 
to  judge,  is  clearly  in  favor  of  (4)  or  (5)  as  better  than  any  of 
the  others  for  the  high  school.  I  therefore  conclude  that  the 


VARIOUS   TYPES  OF  BOTANICAL   COURSES    12$ 

present  differences  of  opinion,  and  the  reasons  advanced  in 
their  support,  should  come  under  searching  criticism  on  the 
part  of  the  intending  teacher.  For  my  own  part,  I  can  say 
only  that  my  own  experience  and  judgment  favors  the  syn- 
thetic course,  beginning  with  the  more  familiar  materials. 


CHAPTER  VI 

USE    OF   THE   METHOD    OF   THOUGHT   IN   TEACHING 
BOTANY 

I  PROPOSE  now  to  take  up  for  consideration  certain  points  in 
the  method  of  acquiring  botanical  knowledge,  with  a  view  to 
their  bearing  upon  the  teaching  of  this  science.  Belief  in  the 
efficacy  of  the  "  method  of  discovery  "  for  the  pupil  is  based 
upon  the  assumption  that  each  of  us  must  constantly  re-discover 
for  himself  what  those  who  have  gone  before  have  discovered. 
That  the  same  method  of  knowledge  acquisition  is  used  by  all 
is  true  in  general ;  but  as  regards  the  body  of  knowledge  itself, 
it  is  certainly  false  to  suppose  that  it  is  profitable  or  possible 
laboriously  to  attempt  to  repeat  the  experience  of  the  race  in 
a  single  life.  What  is  accumulated  experience  good  for  ?  And 
how  is  progress  possible  unless  we  can  use  previously  deter- 
mined results  ?  It  is  significant  that  in  teaching  we  illustrate 
well-established  knowledge  rather  than  discover  new  truth ;  and 
much  of  this  is  necessary  before  any  one  of  us  may  be  fortunate 
enough  to  advance  the  limits  of  knowledge. 

It  will  therefore  be  profitable  for  the  teacher  to  examine 
the  method  by  which  botanical  knowledge  is  gained,  in  order 
that  he  may  be  guided  in  his  teaching  to  right  pedagogical 
habits  ;  thus  he  may  rather  be  the  more  truly  a  leader  to  his 
pupils  than  a  setter  of  tasks. 

The  important  desideratum  in  teaching  botany,  as  in  other 
objective  sciences,  is  to  make  it  possible  for  the  pupil  to  realize 
the  knowledge  which  is  his  by  right  of  inheritance.  To  do 
this,  however,  he  must,  to  some  degree  at  least,  repeat  the 
experience  of  his  intellectual  forebears  in  the  use  of  the 
methods  by  which  they  obtained  their  knowledge.  This  is 
quite  a  different  doctrine  from  that  of  the  method  of  discovery. 
Practically,  it  teaches  that  pupils  should  gain  a  thorough 


METHOD   OF   THOUGHT  IN   TEACHING       12$ 

acquaintance  with  the  method  of  acquiring  botanical  knowledge 

by  using  it.     By  learning  how  botanical  knowledge 

.     *  °     HowBotani- 

has  been  gamed,  the  results  which  have   been  ob-  cai Knowledge 

,.,-,,  11-111  is  Gained, 

tamed  m  other  fields  as   well   will  have  a  proper 

significance  for  him.  To  do  this,  he  must  first  be  taught  to 
observe.  "To  see  a  natural  object  as  it  is,  correctly  and  com- 
pletely,"1 is  a  scientific  victory,  without  which  none  other  can 
be  gained.  The  immediate  end  in  view  is  to  form  a  mental 
image  of  the  thing  observed  —  not  to  remember  statements 
about  it,  but  the  thing  itself  as  having  dimensions,  a  certain 
form,  color,  and  other  qualities. 

Theoretically,  the  acquisition  of  facts  is  a  perfectly  simple 
operation  and  in  an  ideal  condition  of  education  we  ought  to 
be  able  to  assume  that  pupils  coming  from  the  elementary 
school  have  pushed  their  ability  in  this  direction  to  some  con- 
siderable degree  of  perfection.  The  facts,  however,  do  not 
permit  us  to  assume  this.  There  is  repeated  testimony  that 
pupils  of  high-school  grade  and  even  beyond  are  usually  com- 
pletely lost  when  they  are  asked  to  form  a  clear  notion  of 
some  simple,  natural  object.2 

If  this  is  even  partly  true  it  is  idle,  pedagogically  considered, 
to  require  a  beginner  in  botany  to  make  his  earlier  observa- 
tions with  an  instrument.  It  would  seem  to  be  beyond  dis- 
pute that,  if  a  student  cannot  use  his  unassisted  senses  to 
good  effect,  to  introduce  a  system  of  lenses  between  the  eyes 
and  the  object  tends  to  confusion.  It  certainly  does  so  in  the 
majority  of  cases.  Even  if  we  pass  by  the  technical  difficulties 
of  using  the  instrument,  there  is  a  psychological  difficulty  in 
the  inability  of  a  beginner  to  reconstruct,  from  a  series  of 
optical  sections,  an  image  of  a  solid  object.  This  is  a  very 
great  and  real  difficulty,  unappreciated  by  the  majority  of 
teachers  who  forget  their  early  difficulties.  Thus  a  yeast  cell, 
according  to  a  beginner's  observation,  is  an  oval  plane ;  Spiro- 


1  Ganong's  Teaching  Botanist. 

2  Farlow,  W.  G.,  Biological  Teaching  in  Colleges.     Popular  Science 
Monthly,  28 :  581.     March,  1886. 


126  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

gyra  is  a  band  or  ribbon,  and  not  a  cylinder.1  The  difficulty 
is  increased  when  the  object  is  too  large  to  be  included  in  the 
field  of  the  microscope,  in  which  case  the  student  must  needs 
reconstruct  in  the  directions  of  all  the  dimensions.  In  view 
of  the  difficulty  of  forming  a  notion  of  a  single  entire  object, 
we  must  believe  that  we  have  in  this  a  grave  hindrance  to  the 
exercise  of  the  operations  of  comparison  —  of  distinguishing 
likenesses  and  differences,  and  of  forming  a  notion  of  a 
type.  For  what  we  must  aim  at  is  not  alone 
Notion  of  the  seeing  of  a  single  object,  but  rather  the  con- 
struction of  a  general  group  of  objects.  Assum- 
ing the  object  to  be  a  seed  or  a  leaf,  what  we  desire  is  that  a 
student  shall  study,  not  one  specimen,  and  know  that  one,  but 
that,  by  the  study  of  several,  he  shall  eliminate  by  comparison 
the  non-essential  differences,  get  at  the  constant  elements  of 
form,  of  structure,  and  the  like,  so  that  he  shall  thus  obtain  a 
type  notion.  This  is  the  more  necessary  in  view  of  the 
exigencies  of  teaching  which  lie  in  the  possibility,  in  a  short 
time,  of  giving  the  student  an  opportunity  at  every  point  of 
forming  a  type  notion  from  his  own  observations.  We  must 
allow  time  at  the  beginning  of  a  course  for  the  student  to  culti- 
vate the  ability  to  form  the  notion  of  a  type  from  his  own 
observations.  But  we  have  to  use  the  mental  attitude  thus 
gained,  in  getting  knowledge  later  on  more  rapidly.  For 
example,  in  a  course  commencing  with  the  seed,  a  good 
number  of  seeds  of  the  same  plant  may  be  examined  with  fair 
speed,  and  a  general  idea  may  thus  be  formed.  But  in  the 
later  anatomical  study  of  the  stem  the  time  is  insufficient  for 
the  student  to  do  the  same  thing  for,  say,  monocotyledonous 
stems.  The  mere  remark  that  there  are  exceptions  means 


1  In  training  students,  who  are  ready  for  such  work,  to  get  a  mental 
image  of  three  dimensions,  one  very  good  way  is  for  them  to  study  a 
cell  of  Spirogyra,  and  then  to  reconstruct  an  optical  transverse  section. 
Another  method  is  to  require  students  to  reconstruct  a  piece  of  pine 
wood  in  three  dimensions,  from  longitudinal,  transverse,  and  tangential 
sections.  This  plan  was  first  used  by  Professor  W.  G.  Farlow. 


METHOD    OF   THOUGHT  IN  TEACHING       12? 

nothing  unless  the  exceptions  are  actually  examined,  unless 
some  grasp  has  been  gained  of  the  value  of  comparison,  and 
of  the  dependence  we  may  place  on  a  type,  in  point  of  useful- 
ness. I  should  say  that  the  early  work  of  a  course  may  be 
regarded  as  successful  in  this  direction,  if  the  pupil  should 
ask  to  see  other  stems  so  as  to  test  the  validity  of  the  type ; 
and  further,  that  it  would  be  good  practice  for  teachers  to  be 
provided  with  drawings,  photographs,  lantern  slides,  or  demon- 
stration for  several  kinds  of  stems,  and  to  show  these  to  the 
class,  following  a  careful  study  of  the  essential  features  of  the 
specimens  supplied. 

We  desire,  then,  that  pupils  shall  get  the  ability  to  determine 
correctly  the  features  of  an  object,  to  compare  this  with  others 
of  the  same  kind,  and  by  comparison  to  get  the  facts  common 
to  a  number  of  objects.  In  this  way  is  gained  the  knowledge 
of  a  group  as  expressed  in  a  type.  This  is,  of  course,  not 
to  be  confined  to  closely  similar  objects ;  the  same  process 
applied  to  objects  of  greater  differences  is  more  difficult  and 
calls  for  greater  mental  grasp.  Thus  we  may  first  study  the 
fruits  of  one  species,  then  of  another  species ;  still  again  of  a 
third  ;  but  we  must  soon  institute  a  comparison  of  these  differ- 
ent fruits  in  order  to  lead  the  pupil  to  a  somewhat  compre- 
hensive notion  of  the  fruit  in  general.  It  is,  furthermore, 
important  that  the  materials  shall  be  such  as  to  offer  fair  con- 
ditions for  observation.  It  is  not  just  to  ask  a  student  to  see 
things  which  are  difficult  for  an  accomplished  observer  to  see  ; 
as,  for  example,  to  compare  two  objects,  unless  with  a  fair 
amount  of  diligence,  all  the  points  of  comparison  may  be  made 
out,  or  may  be  seen  to  be  absent  in  one  or  both.  The  seed 
of  the  onion,  for  instance,  is  far  too  difficult  for  a  high-school 
student  to  study  in  comparison  with,  say,  the  pea.  It  is  per- 
tinent, also,  to  point  out  that  the  objections  against  the  use 
of  the  microscope  early  in  the  course  do  not  hold  value  of  a 
for  the  use  of  a  simple  lens.  It  is  a  common  Simple  Lens, 
experience  that,  having  once  seen  some  rather  minute  character 
with  a  hand  lens,  it  becomes  distinct  enough  afterward  to  the 


128  THE   TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

naked  eye.  I  have  found  that,  distinct  as  is  the  micropyle 
on  a  lima  bean,  it  will  often  escape  the  attention  until  searched 
for  and  found  with  a  lens.  It  is  thereafter  readily  seen  with 
the  naked  eye  and  the  same  feature  will  the  more  readily  be 
found  on  other  kinds  of  seeds. 

Such  morphological  ideas  as  the  above  may  be  gained,  as 
we  have  shown,  by  comparing  different  objects  as  to  the  cor- 
How  the  idea  respondence  or  homology  of  their  parts.  But 
menu?0*"  comparison  has  a  further  use,  for  when  we  apply 
Gained.  tnjs  method  to  the  same  object  or  organism  in 

different  stages  of  its  growth  we  gain  an  idea  of  development. 
Just  as  the  rapidly  passing  pictures  of  a  kinetoscopic  series 
give,  by  the  exact  and  rapid  superposition  of  one  on  the  other, 
the  impression  of  movement  of  the  elements  of  the  pictures, 
so  the  superimposed  images  of  a  plant  in  various  stages  in  its 
development  supply  the  elements  out  of  which  the  idea  of 
change  in  form  is  obtained.  This  is  most  desirable,  in  order 
to  the  end,  elsewhere  specified,  that  students  should  get  a 
dynamic  viewpoint. 

What  has  been  said  above  in  regard  to  acquiring  knowledge 
of  form,  that  is,  of  gaining  morphological  ideas,  is  equally  true 

with  regard  to  physiological  ideas.  These  also,  in 
General  Phys-  *  %_  ,••,,, 

ioiogical          general  form,  can  be  obtained  only  by  comparison. 

It  would  be  unscientific  after  having  observed  the 
behavior  of  a  given  organ  in  one  plant,  to  assert  that  the  be- 
havior of  the  corresponding  organ  in  another  plant  is  the 
same.  Being  familiar  with  the  structure  of  corresponding 
physiological  parts,  we  may  infer  that  the  functions  of  similarly 
constructed  parts  are  the  same.  But  this  inference  is  possible 
only  after  the  comparative  study  of  function  as  of  structure. 
For  the  pupil,  however,  much  comparison  is  impossible.  He 
must  therefore  be  content  with  illustration  of  behavior,  or, 
otherwise  stated  with  a  physiological  type,  chosen  with  due 
regard  to  its  value  as  such. 

There  is,  in  physiology,  a  special  application  of  the  method 
of  comparison  in  the  control  experiment,  and  it  is  of  the  high- 


METHOD   OF  THOUGHT  IN  TEACHING      129 

est  importance  that  the  teacher  appreciates  its  value  both 
as  a  means  for  gaining  knowledge,  and  for  efficient  teaching. 
Essentially  the  method  of  control  is  simply  the  control 
setting  up  of  an  experiment  in  duplicate,  one  Experiment, 
condition  only  being  varied.  Theoretically  it  is  a  comparison 
of  the  behavior  of  a  normal  plant  and  one  under  experiment. 
If,  for  example,  we  desire  to  know  the  behavior  of  a  given 
plant  in  the  absence  of  carbon  dioxid,  we  must  know  what  it 
is  in  its  presence  in  normal  quantities.  But  to  determine  the 
former,  an  apparatus  is  necessary,  which  may  or  may  not 
cause  the  introduction  of  other  abnormal  conditions,  such  as 
extreme  humidity.  To  bring  this .  under  control,  therefore, 
a  similar  apparatus  in  which  the  normal  amount  of  carbon 
dioxid  is  present  must  be  set  up,  and  both  experiments  must 
be  surrounded  by  like  conditions  of  light,  temperature,  etc.  If 
this  is  properly  done  but  one  factor  will  differ  in  the  experi- 
ment and  control ;  and  upon  this,  differences  in  structure  and 
in  behavior  will  depend.  The  teacher  will  readily  see  the  ped- 
agogical advantage  of  the  control  experiment.  Since  it  is  only 
by  such  means  that  we  can  learn  the  exact  truth,  so  also  is  it 
possible  to  teach  scientifically  only  by  the  use  of  the  same 
method. 

Observation  and    comparison   of  their  form    and  behavior 
are,  then,  the  steps  to  knowledge  of  plants.     We  should  not 

neglect  to  mention,  however,  the  mental  condition 

Amount  of 
under   which  work  of  this  kind  may  be    accom-   Work  in  a 

plished,  namely  patience.  No  one  learns  a  lesson 
in  geometry  in  one  step ;  ability  in  use  of  language  cannot  be 
acquired  at  once.  No  more  can  a  task  in  botany  be  compre- 
hended at  a  glance.  To  be  willing  to  see  and  acquire  knowl- 
edge of  facts  as  such  is  part  of  the  scientific  attitude.  Pupils 
are  very  likely  to  become  restive  under  a  task  in  the  labora- 
tory, and  this  is  due  often  to  the  apparent  uselessness  of  the 
work.  But  this  work  of  observation  is  unavoidable.  It  is, 
however,  most  true  that  we  should  not,  as  teachers,  insist  on 
the  acquisition  of  a  large  number  of  observations  without  giv- 

9 


130  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

ing  direction  to  the  mind  of  the  pupil.  Making  a  lot  of  un- 
necessary drawings  or  of  detail  beyond  a  certain  useful  limit  is 
wasteful.  Bootless  fact-gathering  is  as  bad  in  one  place  as 
another.  Patience  and  willingness  to  examine  things  and 
make  them  out  are  begotten  of  success  in  using  those  already 
attained.  Success  is  the  ground  for  faith  that  other  facts 
whose  meaning  is  not  at  once  clear  will  become  related  and 
significant  sooner  or  later.  The  patience  of  the  real  naturalist 
is  the  expression  of  belief  that,  as  his  efforts  to  find  the  rela- 
tions of  facts  have  succeeded  in  the  past,  so  further  efforts  will 
succeed.  But  a  high-school  pupil  has  little  or  none  of  such 
experience.  The  teacher  must,  therefore,  make  it  worth  while 
to  him,  but  without  doing  his  work.  The  more  the  pupil  finds 
himself  gaining  the  power  of  self-direction  the  more  will  his 
work  seem  to  him  worth  while.  The  indiscriminate  observa- 
tion of  many  facts  is  a  far  different  thing  from  intelligent, 
selective  observation.  That  training  may  be  regarded  as  suc- 
cessful in  proportion  as  it  stimulates  the  pupil  to  efficient  self- 
directed  effort. 

While  it  is  highly  important  that  the  teacher  should  not  de- 
mand the  observation  of  too  many  or  of  unimportant  facts,  but 

should  the  rather  skilfully  use  the  fewer  important 
Side-lights  7 

on  Labora-        necessary  ones,  it  does  not  follow  that  the  pupil  s 

mind  shall  be  completely  excluded  from  the  inci- 
dental consideration  of  accepted  ideas  or  theoretical  expla- 
nations of  some  of  the  more  important  features.  The 
scientist  in  the  search  for  truth  must  be  a  dispassionate  ob- 
server of  facts  apart  from  their  meaning,  and  it  is  of  great 
educational  value,  as  Ganong  has  well  said,  that  students  should 
learn  this.  This  is  the  ideal  of  which  Darwin1  was  so  com- 
plete a  master.  Nevertheless,  it  is  just  as  true  that  it  is  a 
perfectly  normal  operation  of  the  mind  to  search  all  the  while 
for  explanations ;  and  whether  these  are  ultimately  proved  to 
be  tnre  or  not,  they  are  the  product  of  the  scientific  imagina- 


1  See  his  autobiography. 


METHOD    OF   THOUGHT  IN   TEACHING      131 

tion,  and  they  serve  as  stimuli  to  quicken  the  powers  of  acqui- 
sition and  to  give  them  direction. 

Now  my  contention  is  that  in  the  school  we  as  teachers 
should  help  students  to  think,  and  we  can  do  this  by  indicating 
in  some  manner  the  significance  of  some  of  the  facts  with  which 
they  are  dealing  without  disturbing  certain  definitely  outlined 
problems.  The  truth  of  this  position  is  indicated  by  the  fact 
that  interested  students  are  constantly  asking  for  explanations, 
and  a  refusal  to  illuminate  their  work  is  justified  only  when  it 
really  vitiates  their  problems  for  them.  Furthermore,  a  good 
teacher  can  use  such  opportunities  to  illustrate,  by  his  own 
answers,  the  judicial  attitude  of  the  real  student  of  nature. 
This  matter  is  illustrated  by  the  treatment  of  the  micropyle 
in  the  first  studies  of  the  seed.  Such  a  constant  and  familiar 
structure  often  elicits  inquiry  as  to  its  value,  to  which,  in 
answer,  one  may  say  that  it  is  regarded  by  some  as  a  point 
for  the  rapid  absorption  of  water,  and  it  is  certainly  utilized 
in  very  many  plants  for  the  access  of  the  pollen  tube.  The 
former  explanation,  the  teacher  may  point  out,  is  capable  of 
immediate  experimental  examination.  The  micropyle  may 
be  sealed  with  soft  paraffin,  the  seed  placed  in  water,  and 
the  tissues  watched.  This  should  by  all  means  be  done. 
He  may  expand  upon  the  second  statement  to  indicate  the 
extent  of  the  problem,  during  which  it  may  be  said  that,  in 
some  plants  {Cannabinaceoc)  the  micropyle  becomes  closed 
by  fusion  of  the  perimicropylar  tissues,  which  single  fact  will 
show  that  it  is  not  a  necessary  condition,  but  one  which  may 
have  been  seized  upon  by  the  pollen  tube  as  an  advantage. 

Not  only,  then,  must  the  student,  by  his  own  labor  observe 
and  think  and  experiment.  The  teacher  must  by  skilful  guid- 
ance be  an  inspiration  to  his  students.  Above  all  things  he 
need  not  be  an  encyclopaedia,  but  rather  a  living  example  of 
skill  in  the  use  of  the  scientific  method.  This  demands  on 
the  part  of  the  teacher  knowledge  and  good  training. 

Every  course  in  botany  should  be  a  unit  in  the  sense  that 
every  new  lesson  should  take  for  its  departure  the  point  already 


132  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

reached  by  previous  studies.  Each  exercise  should,  there- 
fore, be  made  the  occasion  (r)  of  acquiring  new  facts  and 
(2)  of  leading  the  student  by  comparison  with  previously 
learned  facts  to  formulate  logical  conclusions;  *'.  e.,  should 
call  for  the  exercise  of  the  method  of  thought.  That  the 
study  of  plants  may  not  become  merely  a  study  of  formal 
morphology  or  of  taxonomy,  the  ideas  of  the  organism  and 
of  its  activities  should  be  kept  steadily  in  mind.  We  shall 
now  take  up  the  problem  of  the  early  exercises  in  botany,  and 
see  what  materials  we  may  choose  and  how  these  shall  be 
managed. 

The  majority  of  teachers  in  elementary  courses  have  ad- 
Early  Lessons  vocated  beginning  such  with  the  study  of  the 
in  Botany.  seed.  A  fuller  discussion  of  this  point  has  been 
given  elsewhere.  Ganong  has  especially  advocated  this  pro- 
cedure. 

"  There  is  nothing  known  to  me  better  than  large  seeds,  which 
have  the  further  advantages  of  being  easy  to  obtain  and  in  con- 
dition for  study  at  all  seasons,  as  well  as  a  logical  point  of  begin- 
ning for  the  study  of  the  cycle  of  plant  life.  The  correct  sizes  and 
shapes  of  these  seeds,  the  exact  kinds  and  relative  positions  of  all 
of  the  markings  on  the  coats  and  their  relations  to  the  parts  of  the 
embryo  inside,  the  number  of  the  coats,  the  full  number  of  parts 
in  the  embryo,  and  the  exact  way  they  are  put  together,  all  afford 
under  the  skilled  teacher  fine  materials  for  practice  in  observation, 
a  failure  to  succeed  in  which  cannot  be  laid  to  inability  to  use 
instruments,  or  ignorance  of  how  to  begin  work."  1 

I    have    myself,  while  agreeing  with  Ganong  in  principle, 
taken  a   somewhat  different   position.2     In  the    passage   just 
quoted  the  phrase  "  a  logical  point  "  has  no  par- 
ticular  force,  since  it  admits  that  there  are  other 


Seed 

equally   logical    points    for   starting   the    study  of 

botany.     One  of  these  is  the  fruit,  which,  after  some  years 
of  experience  with   the   other  method,  I    have  found   to  be 


1  The  Teaching  Botanist,  p.  35. 

2  The  Course  of  Botany  in  the    Horace   Mann    School.      Teachers 
College  Record,  Vol.  II. 


METHOD   OF   THOUGHT  IN  TEACHING       133 

especially  useful  for  the  following  reason.  The  largest  and 
only  really  useful  monocotyledonous  type  for  the  study  of 
the  development  of  the  seedling,  which  is  at  the 
same  time  readily  accessible,  is  the  "grain  "of  with  the 
Indian  corn  (Zea  Mays}.  Besides  being  large,  it 
germinates  quickly,  the  parts  are  readily  observable,  and  it  is 
one  of  the  most  important  of  American  food  plants.  The 
greatest  objection  to  it  is  found  in  the  fact  that  the  "grain" 
is  a  fruit,  the  contained  seed  being  devoid  of  seed-coats 
which  have  been  lost  by  absorption,  and  being  closely  in- 
vested by  the  thin  membranous  pericarp.  This  circumstance 
gives  trouble,  not  alone  to  students,  but  to  many  teachers,  and 
I  have  often  had  evidence  of  this  in  the  note-books  of  high- 
school  pupils.  The  amount  of  success  which  sometimes 
attends  the  efforts  to  find  the  micropyle  is  quite  remarkable. 
Of  course  it  is  not  there,  the  seed-coats  being  absent.  Even 
if  the  teacher  is  fully  aware  of  the  difficulties,  explanations 
often  go  for  nothing.  The  student  does  not  have  any  facts  at 
his  disposal  which  will  help  him  to  form  his  own  judgments. 
I  lay  particular  emphasis  upon  this  point,  because  it  is  at  the 
beginning  of  a  course  that  we  must  make  especial  efforts  to 
give  the  student  a  chance  to  get  clear  ideas.  This  is  entirely 
avoided  if  the  fruit  is  made  the  point  of  departure,  and  I 
have  used  the  pea  or  bean  for  this  purpose.  The  treatment 
in  detail  will  be  seen  upon  examination  of  the  outline  in  the 
eighth  chapter. 

A  further  point  which  I  have  been  accustomed  to  emphasize 
in  consonance  with  the  dynamic  idea  of  plants  which  has  been 
discussed  above  is  that  of  development.     In  the  compare 
first  few  lessons  on  the  seed  as  generally  carried  JS  ofD?-* 
out  no  facts  are  brought  out  with  this  aim  in  view,  velopment. 
By  using  two  or   three    stages   of   development   the    relative 
growth  of  the  different  regions  of  the  fruit 'and  of  the  enclosed 
seeds  can  be  made  out,  and  the  exercise  has  been  found  ex- 
tremely useful  in  later  work. 

There  is  a  difficulty  which  must  be  noticed  at  this  point, 


134  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

namely,  that  it  is  not  possible  for  a  beginner  to  make  out 
in  all  the  forms  studied  every  feature  which  can  be  seen  in 
some  one  fruit  and  its  seeds.  For  example,  the  micropyle  is 
seen  readily  enough  in  the  seed  of  the  lima  bean,  of  the  pine, 
Incomplete  ^ut  onty  w^^  great  acuteness  of  observation  in  the 
Evidence.  castor-oil  seed,  and  not  at  all  in  Indian  corn,  as 
above  pointed  out.  It  becomes,  therefore,  an  exercise  in  judg- 
ment on  the  part  of  the  pupil  in  concluding  from  incomplete 
evidence  that  a  given  object  is  a  seed  in  a  morphological 
sense. 

But  on  the  other  hand  it  has  seemed  to  me  that  beginners 
may  not  be  expected  to  understand  the  seed-coats  at  all,  a 
point  which  is  usually  insisted  upon.  Although  there  are  two 
integuments  in  the  types  mentioned  above  except  in  the  pine 
they  become  indistinguishable  in  the  legume  by  fusion ;  they 
do  not  separate  from  each  other  in  Ricinus  in  their  dividing 
plane  (the  test  is,  in  fact,  only  a  part  of  the  inner  integument) 
so  that  it  is  incorrect  to  call  the  inner  integument  the 
'tegmen*  or  'endopleura'  and  the  outer  the  (testa).  In 
Indian  corn  they  have  been  absorbed,  and  in  the  pine  only 
one  integument  is  present,  the  delicate  membrane  imme- 
diately surrounding  the  endosperm  being  a  remnant  of  the 
nucellus.  The  evidence  is,  therefore,  so  scanty  and  so  difficult 
to  get  at  that  it  is  too  severe  and  confusing  a  task  for  the  be- 
ginner, and  would  therefore  best  be  omitted.  In  the  later 
years  of  the  high  school  or  for  more  mature  students  in  gen- 
eral an  account  of  the  behavior  of  the  seed- coats  illustrated 
by  charts  and  microscopic  propositions  has  in  my  experience 
proved  of  interest  and  instruction. 


CHAPTER  VII 

GENERAL  BOTANICAL   PRINCIPLES    TO   BE   EMPHASIZED 
IN   TEACHING 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Agassiz,  L.  Method  in  the  Study  of  Natural  History.  Boston, 
Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.  1887. 

Bailey,  L.  H.  The  Survival  of  the  Unlike.  New  York,  The 
Macmillan  Co.  1897. 

Spencer,  H.  Principles  of  Biology.  New  York,  D.  Appleton  &  Co. 
1898. 

Goebel,  K.     Organ ography,  Part  I.     Oxford,  1900. 

THE  teacher  of  botany  has  before  him  in  the  choice  of 
material  a  co'mplex  task.  The  management  of  these  in  the 
class  room  is  also  difficult,  since  they  offer  so  many  points  of 
interest  and  attack.  The  danger  which  a  teacher  is  not  un- 
likely to  fall  into  is,  therefore,  that  of  touching  on  a  great  many 
facts,  and  of  failing  to  keep  in  sight  the  broad  ideas  which 
are  derived  from  the  study.  What  these  are  I  shall  now 
attempt  briefly  to  discuss. 

According  to  the  outline  we  shall  adopt,  the  subject-matter 
of  botany  is  divided  into  four  parts  :  Morphology  and  anatomy, 
physiology,  ecology,  and  classification.  These  may  be  ar- 
ranged in  two  groups,  structural  and  physiological,  in  order  to 
see  what  the  general  ideas  of  plants  are  which  these  two 
classes  of  ideas  should  endeavor  to  deal  with  in  the  course. 
We  take  them  in  the  order  given.1 

i .  Anatomy  and  Morphology,  the  structure  of  organisms,  in 
a  broad  sense. 


1  The  student  should  consult  Chapter  I.  of  Parts  IV.  and  V.  ...  in 
Spencer's  Principles  of  Biology. 


136  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

(1)  The  possibility  of  the  type  conception  rests  upon  the 
observed   fact  of  "  uniformity "   in  plan   or  conformity  to   a 

type.  Objective  types  are  non-existent;  but  for 
practical  purposes  they  may  be  chosen  as  express- 
ing objectively,  with  more  or  less  exactness,  the  subjective 
idea.  The  observed  fact  of  "  uniformity  "  in  plan  is  that 
within  limits  plants  possess  similar  organs  of  similar  origin 
similarly  placed,  the  obvious  (sense-appreciable)  results  of 
similarly  responsive  reactions  to  similar  stimuli.  The  idea  of 
type  is  therefore  a  generalized  notion  arrived  at  by  comparison, 
a  point  of  method  discussed  above.  The  determination  of 
similar  parts  and  their  similar  positions  (the  criterion  of 
which  is  largely  similarity  of  origin)  is  the  determination 
of  homology. 

This  explains  the  prevalence  of  the  use  of  the  words  "  type  " 
and  "  typical  "  in  the  above  outline,  and  it  constitutes  also  the 
reason  for  the  wise  choice  of  types.  These  must  be  as  gen- 
eralized as  possible,  free  from  detail  of  specialization,  /.  <?.,  as 
little  aberrant  as  may  be. 

(2)  The  fact  that  the  origin  of  organs  does  not  indicate  their 
functions,  and  therefore  (a)  that  homologous  organs  may  serve 
widely  different  uses,  and  (/£)  that  the  same  use  in  the  economy 
of  the  plant  may  be  subserved  by  organs  of  different  origin, 
makes  it  necessary  to  determine  by  observation  and  experi- 
ment what  the  function  of  a  given  organ  may  be.     We  thus 

arrive  at  the  idea  of  analogy  in  organisms.  Ex- 
amination of  analogous  organs  discovers  the  fact 
that  though  unlike  in  some  structural  features  they  are  alike  in 
others,  from  which  the  important  generalization  is  derived  that 
the  structure  of  an  organ  is  connected  with  its  function. 
Structure  here  means  form  as  well  as  anatomy.  It  is  a  broad 
inference,  but  one  growing  in  importance  and  recognition,  that 
all  morphological  structures  are  the  expression  of  function. 
The  study  of  morphology  cannot,  then,  be  separated  from  the 
study  of  physiology.  From  these  considerations  we  conclude 
that  types  chosen  for  study  shall  be  such  as  to  illustrate  diver- 


BOTANICAL   PRINCIPLES  IN  TEACHING     137 

gence  of  function  in  homologous  parts.  We  conclude,  also, 
that  in  elementary  education  cognizance  should  be  taken 
chiefly  of  the  functions  and  activities  of  the  organism  and  to  a 
minor  degree  of  the  morphological  and  anatomical  considera- 
tions connected  therewith.  Therefore,  I  hold  that  the  intro- 
duction of  experiment  is  of  the  greatest  importance  both  for 
the  determination  of  function  and  of  emphasizing  the  dynamic 
phase  of  plant  study. 

(3)  The  organism  passes  through  a  cycle  of  change  known 
as  its  life  history  or  ontogeny.     These    changes  are  from  a 
simple  undifferentiated  to  a  complex  differentiated 
condition.     The    study  of  various   stages    in   the 

growth  and  development  of  individuals  supplies  the  materials 
for  getting  a  record  of  these  changes.  For  this  purpose  types 
should  be  chosen  which  show  some  marked  ontogenetic 
changes,  which  if  possible  epitomize  the  phylogeny  and  which 
are  fairly  rapid  in  their  development.  In  plants,  the  embryo- 
logical  history  is  so  much  curtailed  that  comparatively  few  plants 
serve  sufficiently  well  for  elementary  work,  but  among  these  the 
Leguminosa  are  the  best. 

The  study  of  the  life  cycle  connects  itself  with  that  of 
reproduction  in  the  process  by  which  a  new  similar  life  cycle 
is  started.  A  plant  begets  on  the  whole  its  like,  from  which 
there  results  a  morphological  stability.  The  fact  that  more  or 
less  aberration  from  the  parent  occurs,  and  that  life  cycles  do 
not  repeat  themselves  exactly  as  to  individual  differences  in  all 
instances,  if  in  any,  is  of  great  importance  from  the  viewpoint 
of  evolution. 

(4)  Just  as  there  is,  in  the  individual,  a  series  of  changes 
from  simple  to  complex,  from  the  relatively  undifferentiated  to 
the  differentiated  (ontogeny),  so,  in  the  history  of 
organisms,  as  a  whole,  have  there  been  such  changes 
(phylogeny).     The   descent  of  each   particular   organism   is, 
theoretically,  traceable  through  a  series  of  successively  more 
and  more  specialized  forms.     The  evidence  as  regards  s  plant 
is,  however,  chiefly  obtained  from  comparative  study  of  existing 


138  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

organisms,  and  to  a  less  degree  from  fragmentary  records  of  the 
past  found  in  fossils,  and  it  is  not  easy  to  arraign  the  evidence 
in  elementary  work.  Nevertheless,  the  modern  doctrine  of 
evolution,  which  was  arrived  at  first  by  the  study  of  animals 
and  plants,  is  a  far  too  important  generalization  from  the  point 
of  view  of  education  as  well  as  of  science  to  be  neglected  in 
the  high  school.  Furthermore,  it  is  chiefly,  if  not  entirely  upon 
the  courses  in  botany  or  zoology  that  the  high-school  pupil 
must  depend  for  enlightenment  in  this  direction.  It  therefore 
becomes  necessary  to  choose  the  materials  which,  in  as  brief 
and  clear  a  manner  as  possible,  will  serve  best  as  a  basis  for 
illustrating  the  great  generalization  of  modern  biological 
science.  The  evidence  in  the  study  of  living  plants  can  be 
drawn  most  directly  from  the  study  of  alternation  of  genera- 
tions, and  for  this  purpose  beautiful  material  may  be  obtained 
among  the  Bryophyta  (mosses  and  liverworts)  and  Pterido- 
phyta  (ferns  and  fern  allies). 

We  can,  however,  scarcely  take  the  ground  that  in  the  high 
school  there  can  be  attempted  more  than  a  brief  exposition  of 
evolution  and  a  summarizing  of  the  more  striking  evidences, 
though  it  would  seem  that  people  should  not  be  wholly 
ignorant  of  the  facts  of  variation,  mutation,  adaptation,  the 
struggle  for  existence  and  inheritance,  nor  inappreciative  of  the 
importance  of  these  for  the  explanation  of  evolution.  Never- 
theless, the  popular  acceptance  of  the  theory  must  rest  upon 
its  reasonableness  rather  than  explicit  and  final  proof.  The 
study  of  the  modus  operandi  of  evolution  is,  I  believe,  not  a 
subject  for  the  high  school.  Concerning  this,  we  can  boast 
chiefly  of  our  ignorance.  It  is  theoretical  and  taxes  the 
intelligence  and  the  experimental  ability  of  the  most  astute 
minds. 

Difficult,  however,  as  it  may  be  to  deal  with  the  subject,  the 
skilful  teacher  can  find  abundant  opportunity  for  illustration 
and  exposition.  Field  work  is  of  especial  value  in  this  con- 
nection because  by  this  means  the  pupil  can  be  brought  into 
contact  with  a  large  amount  of  material.  This  may  be  en- 


BOTANICAL   PRINCIPLES  IN  TEACHING     139 

hanced  in  its  value  to  him  by  following  up  a  judicious  selection 
of  reading. 

It  is,  of  course,  not  assumed  that  all  these  ideas  shall  be 
mastered  by  the  pupil  while  studying  the  materials  selected 
for  this  part  of  the  course.  As  is  seen  from  our  discussion 
of  these  points,  they  depend  upon  and  assume  the  work  in 
physiology,  ecology,  and  classification.  But  the  adoption  of 
these  ideas  as  part  of  the  aim  of  the  course  is  expected  to 
lead  the  teacher  to  a  certain  economy  in  the  selection  of 
materials,  and  to  this  we  shall  pass  in  the  next  chapter. 

We  have  spoken  above  of  differentiation  and  of  adaptation. 

Both  of  these  ideas  are  of  prime  importance,  and 

,     r  ,  ,  .  Differentia- 

we  bring  them  before   the    reader    again  to  em-   tlonand 

phasize  the  importance  of  the  physiological  view- 
point. 

The  differentiation  of  organic  structure  is  the  result  of 
physiological  division  of  labor.  A  function  becomes  localized 
in  the  organism  and  at  that  point  a  special  organ  is  developed. 
This  differentiation  is  a  response  to  the  sum  total  of  environ- 
mental conditions,  and  constitutes  adaptation.  The  problem 
of  adaptation,  as  also  of  the  division  of  labor,  is  a  physiological 
problem,  and  is  to  be  studied  as  far  as  possible  experi- 
mentally. I  have  elsewhere  indicated  the  importance  of  this. 
This  is  the  essence  of  the  method  of  study  in  ecology,  which 
is  supplanting  the  method  of  the  guesser,  who,  assuming 
design,  assumes  also  that  any  subjective  idea  which  appears 
to  fit  really  does  so.  For  this  reason  ecology  is  a  difficult 
subject  as  well  as  a  complex  one,  to  the  study  of  which  all 
kinds  of  knowledge  needs  to  be  brought.  There  is  always 
doubt  about  an  ecological  explanation  which  has  not  been 
subjected  to  some  rigorous  test,  experimental  so  far  as  pos- 
sible. In  elementary  education,  time  and  other  circumstances 
do  not  always  allow  much  more  than  the  emphasis  of  the  view- 
point and  method,  unless  many  other  features  of  interest  are 
sacrificed. 

It  will  be  clear,  it  is  hoped,  that  no  consideration  of  mor* 


140  THE    TEACHING    OF  BOTANY 

phological  materials  is  possible,  from  the  point  of  view  of 
modern  science,  or  profitable  educationally,  which  is  not 
directed  from  the  physiological  basis.  This  has  been  em- 
phasized in  the  discussion  of  the  nature  of  the  synthetic 
course,  especially  by  Ganong x  and  myself.2 

2.  Physiology.  The  outline  of  the  work  in  physiology  is 
sufficiently  detailed  to  be  for  the  most  part  self-explanatory. 
There  are,  however,  some  matters  of  general  bearing  which 
should  receive  consideration. 

Aside  from  photosynthesis  the  fundamental  physiology  of 
plants  and  of  animals  is  much  the  same.  The  activities  in  the 
Correlation  two  grouPs  of  organisms  differ  quantitatively.  It 
a^ifpiajr?  *s  °f  fundamental  importance  educationally  that 
Physiology.  faQ  study  of  plant  physiology  be  so  managed  as  to 
strengthen  and  broaden  the  knowledge  previously  gained  in 
earlier  studies  of  physiology.  .  It  is  equally  important  that  the 
most  fundamental  point  of  difference  —  namely,  the  relation  to 
food  —  should  be  studied  both  from  the  scientific  and  human 
viewpoints.  The  student  should,  therefore,  be  led  to  as  full 
and  complete  a  knowledge  of  photosynthesis  as  possible,  since 
it  is  chiefly  to  this  act  that  many  of  the  most  important  plant 
adaptations  are  related.  The  only  degeneracy  in  plants  of 
fundamental  importance  is  that  of  the  loss  of  chlorophyl.  The 
wide  human  interest  of  the  process  of  photosynthesis  has  been 
discussed. 

That  the  adaptations  of  plants  are  in  very  large  measure 
correlated  with  their  photosynthetic  activity  is  explicable  only 

as  the  organism  acts  as  a  unit.     Its  parts  do  not 
The  Plant  as 
a  Whole  with  react   independently,    but   with    reference    to   the 

Mutual  inter-  whole    economy    of  the    plant,  and    physiological 

activity  must    be    so    interpreted.     Adaptation    is 

seen,  not  alone  in  the  form  and  position  of  parts,  as  the  results 

of  physiological  activity,  but  in  a  wider  and  more  exact  sense 


1  The  Teaching  Botanist. 

2  Botany  in  the  Horace  Mann  School.     Teachers  College  Record,  2  : 
No.  i,  January,  1901. 


BOTANICAL  PRINCIPLES  IN  TEACHING     141 

in  the  activities  themselves.  The  study  of  adaptation  there- 
fore commences  with  the  study  of  irritability,  of  stimulus,  and 
response.  We  therefore  again  see  the  importance  of  studying 
adaptation  experimentally.  We  are  also  led  to  see  the  weight 
attaching  to  the  idea  that  every  complex  organism  acts  as  a 
whole  and  not  as  a  complex  of  independent  activities.  It  is 
educationally  not  necessary  to  begin  the  study  of  physiology 
with  that  of  the  cell ;  a  great  deal  of  it  can  be  learned  without 
any  knowledge  of  the  cell  as  such.  Not  all,  however.  The 
study  of  the  leaf  as  a  mechanism  is  a  most  important  part  of 
anatomical  and  of  physiological  study,  but  is  to  be  understood 
only  by  a  study  of  the  cell  and  of  the  behavior  of  protoplasm. 

The  conception  of  the  organism  as  an  expression  of  physio- 
logical activity,  and  the  localization  of  special  activities  as  a 

result  of  the  establishment  of  special  relations  to 
,  c  ,  f  •      r      •          Physiological 

the  segregation  of  environmental  factors,  is  of  prime    Division  of 

necessity  in    appreciating   the    idea   of  evolution. 

This  has  been    mentioned    in   connection  with   the  work  in 

morphology. 

The  organism  dies,  but  life  is  continuous.  We  cannot  say 
that  it  will  always  be  so,  but  for  all  practical  ends  it  is. 
Each  individual  adapts  itself  to  this  condition  by  The  contj. 
providing  for  a  fresh  life  cycle,  and  so  each  gener-  nuity  of  Lif  e. 
ation  begets  a  new  one.  The  study  of  reproduction  is  simply 
the  study  of  how  this  is  accomplished,  and  its  essential  features 
may  be  studied  with  ease  and  very  great  clearness  in  plants. 
We  have  already  discussed  educational  reasons  why  this  should 
be  done. 

These  four  more  important  general  principles  are  to  be  kept 
in  view  in  carrying  on  the  study  of  physiology.  Further  speci- 
fication on  other  less  general  points  will  appropriately  be  left 
for  consideration  in  connection  with  the  discussion  of  the 
course  in  detail. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

DETAILED   DISCUSSION   OF   THE    COUBSE    IN    BOTANY 
FOR   THE   HIGH   SCHOOL 

IN  a  previous  chapter  the  view  has  been  adopted  that  the 
synthetic  course  in  botany  is  the  best  adapted  to  the  use  of 
the  high  school.  It  is  our  present  purpose  to  examine  such 
a  course  with  especial  reference  to  the  choice  of  materials  and 
the  best  treatment  of  these  in  the  laboratory.  For  this  pur- 
pose we  shall  assume  (i)  that  the  principles  laid  down  in  the 
third  chapter  are  agreed  upon  and  (2)  that  the  Report1  of 
the  Committee  on  a  College  Entrance  Option  in  Botany,  of  the 
Society  for  Plant  Morphology  and  Physiology  in  its  latest  form 
represents  substantially  the  attitude  of  the  botanists  in  this 
country  in  regard  to  the  objective  content  of  the  course.  We 
take  this  to  be  the  case  for  the  following  reasons  : 

i.  The  report  "  is  founded  upon  the  two  important  reports 
of  the  National  Educational  Association,  —  the  Report  of 
Basis  of  Dis-  tne  Committee  of  Ten  (Washington,  1903)  and 
cussion.  tne  Report  of  College  Entrance  Requirements 

(Chicago,  1899),"  from  which  circumstance  it  represents  the 
culmination  at  the  present  time  of  the  thought  of  leading 
teachers  of  botany  upon  the  subject.  It  should  be  added, 
also,  that  the  report  in  its  latest  form  embodies  so  far  as  pos- 
sible all  the  important  suggestions  and  criticisms  offered ;  so 
that  in  essence  it  will  be  found  to  express  the  opinion  of  a 
much  larger  circle  of  botanists  than  that  included  in  the 
membership  of  the  society  before  which  it  was  presented. 
Trafton3  has  examined  the  opinion  of  sixteen  authorities, 


1  Published  in  its  latest  form  in  School  Science,     May,  1902. 

2  Trafton,  G.  H.,  A  Comparison  of  Recent  Authorities  on  Methods 
of  Teaching  Botany.     School  Review,  10:  138.     1902. 


DISCUSSION  OF  THE   COURSE  IN  BOTANY      143 

including  as  such  the  reports  of  committees  of  leading  educa- 
tional and  scientific  societies,  and  he  showed  that  there  is  a 
consensus  of  opinion  among  these  demanding  a  place  in  the 
course  in  botany  for  "  physiology,  ecology,  general  morphology 
(study  of  types),  and  gross  morphology  (study  of  the  struc- 
ture and  modifications  of  organs  of  seed  plants)."  The  re- 
port under  discussion  was  one  of  those  examined  by  Trafton, 
and  we  may  therefore  conclude  that  the  agreement  is  suffi- 
ciently strong  to  warrant  our  assumption. 

2.  The  report  has  been  adopted  by  the  Examination  Board 
of  the  Middle  States  and  Maryland,  as  the  basis  for  its  college 
entrance  requirements.  It  constitutes,  therefore,  a  recognized 
standard  for  high-school  work  which  has  not  been  opposed 
from  above,  but  which  is  the  product  of  the  growth  of  general 
experience  and  opinion.  It  is  assumed  that  the  course  in 
botany  is  a  one-year  course  of  four  to  five  hours  a  week. 

The  specifications  of  the  report  including  the  fundamental 
topics  of  botany  are  here  given  with  some  slight  verbal 
changes  as  follows : 

A.   In  Anatomy  and  Morphology. 

The  seed.  Four  types  (dicotyledon  without  and  with  endo- 
sperm, a  monocotyledon  and  a  gymnosperm)  ;  structure  and  homol- 
ogous parts. 

Food  supply ;  experimental  determination  of  its  nature  and 
value.  Phenomena  of  germination  and  growth  of  embryo  into  a 
seedling  (including  bursting  from  the  seed,  assumption  of  position 
and  unfolding  of  parts). 

The  Shoot.  Gross  anatomy  of  a  typical  shoot ;  including  rela- 
tionship of  position  of  leaf,  stem  (and  root),  the  arrangement  of 
leaves  and  buds  on  the  stem,  and  deviations  (through  light  adjust- 
ments, etc.)  from  symmetry. 

Buds,  and  the  mode  of  origin  of  new  leaf  and  stem  ;  winter  buds 
in  particular. 

Specialized  and  metamorphosed  shoots  (stems  and  leaves). 
General  structure  and  distribution  of  the  leading  tissues  of  the 
shoot ;  annual  growth  ;  shedding  of  bark  and  leaves. 

The  Root.  Gross  anatomy  of  a  typical  root  ;  position  and 
origin  of  secondary  roots;  hair-zone,  cap  and  growing  point. 


144  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

Specialized  and  metamorphosed  roots.  General  structure  and 
distribution  of  the  leading  tissues  of  the  root. 

The  Flower.  Structure  of  a  typical  flower,  especially  of  ovule 
and  pollen ;  functions  of  the  parts.  Comparative  morphological 
study  of  six  or  more  different  marked  types,  with  the  construction 
of  transverse  and  longitudinal  diagrams. 

The  Fruit.  Structure  of  a  typical  fruit  especially  with  reference 
to  the  changes  from  the  flower  and  from  the  ovule  to  seed.  Com- 
parative morphological  study  of  six  or  more  marked  types,  with 
diagrams. 

The  Cell.  Cytoplasm,  nucleus,  sap-cavity,  wall.  Adaptive  mod- 
ifications of  walls,  formation  of  tissues. 

B.   In  Physiology. 

Role  of  water  in  the  plant;  absorption  (osmosis),  path 
of  transfer,  transpiration,  turgidity,  and  its  mechanical  value, 
plasmolysis. 

Photosynthesis ;  Dependence  of  starch  formation  upon  chloro- 
phyll, light  and  carbon  dioxid  ;  evolution  of  oxygen,  observation 
of  starch  grains. 

Respiration;  necessity  for  oxygen  in  growth,  excretion  of 
carbon  dioxid. 

Digestion ;  digestion  of  starch  with  diastase,  and  its  role  in 
translocation  of  foods. 

Irritability  ;  Geotropism,  phototropism,  and  hydrotropism  ;  nature 
of  stimulus  and  response. 

Growth ;  localization  in  higher  plants  ;  amount  in  germinating 
seeds  and  stems  ;  relationship  to  temperature. 

Fertilization;  sexual  and  vegetative  reproduction. 

C.   In  Ecology. 

Modifications  (metamorphosis)  of  parts  for  special  functions. 
Dissemination. 
Cross-Pollination. 

Light  relations  of  green  tissues  ;  leaf  mosaics. 
Plant  Societies;  Mesophytes,  Hydrophytes,  Xerophytes ;  Climb- 
ers, Epiphytes,  Parasites  (and  Saprophytes),  Insectivora. 
Plant  Associations,  and  zonal  distribution. 

D.   In  Classification. 

A  list  of  recommended  types  from  which,  or  their  equivalents, 
selection  may  b^  made : 


DISCUSSION  OF  THE   COURSE  IN  BOTANY     145 

A.  Algae.      Pleurococcus,    Sphaerella,     Spirogyra,    Vaucheria, 
Fucus,    Nemalion    (or    Batrachospermum    or    Polysiphonia    or 
Coleochaete).1 

B.  Fungi.     Bacteria,  Rhizopus,  Yeast,  a  rust  (Puccinia)  (or  a 
Powdery  Mildew),  Mushroom.1 

Bacteria  and  yeast  have  obvious  disadvantages  in  such  a 
course,  but  their  great  economic  prominence  may  justify  their 
introduction. 

C.  Lichens.     Physcia  (or  Parmelia). 

D.  Bryophytes.     In    Hepaticae,    Radula    (or    Porella    or    Mar- 
chantia).     In  Musci,  Mnium  (or  Funaria  or  Polytrichum). 

E.  Pteridophytes.      In    Filicineae,  Aspidium,  or   equivalent,   in- 
cluding, of  course,  the  prothallus. 

In  Equisetineae,  Equisetum. 

In  Lycopodineae,  Lycopodium,  and  Selaginella  (or  Isoetes). 

F.  Gymnosperms.     Pinus  or  equivalent. 

G.  Angiosperms.     A    monocotyledon    and    dicotyledon,    to   be 
studied  with  reference  to  the  ho.nologies  of  their  parts  with  those 
in  the  above  groups ;    together  with  the  representative  plants  of 
the  leading  subdivisions  and  principal  families  of  Angiosperms. 

I  have  already  advanced  reasons  on  page  123  for  adopting 
the  plan  of  commencing  an  elementary  course  with  a  study 
of  the  fruit  and  seed.  This  plan  has  given  such  satisfactory 
results  that  I  shall  give  in  detail  the  outline  for  laboratory 
study  which  I  have  elaborated.2  The  only  disadvantage 
which  is  apparent  is  the  difficulty  of  getting  them  in  northern 
localities,  where  the  castor-oil  plant  does  not  thrive  suffi- 
ciently well  to  bear  well-seeded  fruits.  Collecting  bureaus 
would  probably  supply  them.  They  may  be  kept  in  formalin 
and  serve  well  the  purpose  in  that  condition.3 


1  The  wording  of  the  report  is  here   reproduced.      Differences   in 
recommendation  will  he  noted  below. 

2  Those  who  are  preparing   themselves   for  teaching  should  study 
comparatively  the  outlines  for  study  of  the  seed  given  in  the  various 
text-books,   especially   those    of    Bergen,    Atkinson,    Ganong,   Stevens, 
Setchell,  Spalding,  and  others.     See  Chapter  X.  for  full  titles. 

8  For  further  information  concerning  material,  see  Appendix  B. 


146  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

The  field  of  study  based  upon  fruits  and  seeds  falls  into 
three  parts,  morphology,  with  a  small  amount  of  anatomy, 
physiology  and  ecology.  I  believe  it  is  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance to  carry  out  this  part  of  the  course  very  thoroughly 
and  logically  so  as  to  lay  the  foundation  for  the  rest  of  the 
work,  which  will  be  colored  by  the  character  of  that  of  the 
first  few  weeks.  The  following  outlines  are  given  as  examples 
of  how  the  laboratory  exercises  may  be  worded. 

Morphology  and  Anatomy  of  the  Fruit  and  Seed. 

Answers  to  questions  are  given  in  foot-notes  and  should  not  appear  in 
students'  outlines. 

THE  BEAN.  Materials.  —  Very  young  and  maturing  but 
still  green  pods  of  lima  bean  (string  or  wax  bean)  and  of 
pea.  The  pupil  should  examine  two  types  comparatively. 

Outline  of  Laboratory  Study.  —  Examine  an  unopened  pod. 
Is  it  divided  into  two  similar  halves,  /.  <?.,  is  it  bilaterally  sym- 
metrical? At  one  end  may  be  found  the  stalk  which  supports 
the  pod  on  the  plant.  This  stalk  (pedicel)  is  expanded  at 
the  point  where  the  pod  (fruit)  is  attached  to  form  the  recep- 
tacle. On  its  edge  may  usually  be  found  the  withered  traces 
of  the  parts  of  the  flower.  This  receptacle  is  a  platform  which 
supports  the  organs  o/  the  flower,  of  which  the  pod  is  one, 
enlarged  and  developed  much  beyond  its  original  size.  At 
the  other  end  the  pod  tapers  suddenly  into  the  style  which 
ends  in  a  withered  tip.  The  larger  part  of  the  pod  is  the 
enlarged  ovary,  containing  the  seeds,  which  make  the  sides 
of  the  pod  bulge  here  and  there.  Compare  the  parts  of  the 
ripened  fruit  with  those  in  the  very  young  condition.  Make 
drawings  (side  views)  of  the  forms  supplied,  in  the  same 
relative  position  to  the  same  scale.  Label  the  corresponding 
parts. 

At  the  upper  and  lower  edges  of  the  pods  are  two  tracts 
along  which  the  food,  which  is  necessary  for  the  growth  of  the 
pod  and  seeds,  passes  to  these  from  the  plant.  The  tracts  are 


DISCUSSION  OF   THE    COURSE  IN  BOTANY     147 

made  up,  for  the  most  part,  of  special  vessels  through  which 
passes  the  food  in  solution. 

The  pod  is  covered  by  a  toughish  membrane  with  striations. 
What  is  the  direction  of  the  striation  ?  This  fact  is  connected 
with  the  way  in  which  the  pod  opens  suddenly  under  oblique 
tension  and  forcibly  ejects  the  seeds  to  a  distance.1 

With  the  scalpel  cut  the  pod  transversely  through  the  middle 
of  one  of  the  seeds.  The  knife  should  pass  through  a  seed. 
Is  its  attachment  exactly  in  the  middle  plane  of  the  pod?2 
We  may  now  distinguish  between  the  two  valves  forming  the 
sides  of  the  pod.  Open  a  pod  and  decide  by  examination 
whether  the  seeds  are  all  attached  to  one  valve  or  the  other. 
Verify  in  the  transverse  section.  The  stalk  (funicle)  of  the 
seed  expands  at  its  point  of  attachment  to  the  seed  ;  from 
this  point  there  spreads  out,  so  as  to  envelop  the  plantlet 
(embryo)  within,  the  test  or  seed-coat,  which  serves  to  pro- 
tect the  embryo  after  the  seeds  are  scattered,  and  before 
germination.  The  two  masses  within  each  seed  are  the 
cotyledons  or  seed  leaves.  Make  a  good-sized  drawing  of 
the  transverse  section  in  the  same  relative  position  as  the 
drawing  of  the  pod. 

Open  a  pod  by  splitting  it  along  the  sutures.  Notice  that 
each  seed  has  a  translucent  lump  near  the  stalk.  What  is  the 
position  of  this  lump  with  reference  to  the  stalk?8  Make  a 
sketch  to  show  the  seeds  and  the  pod,  which  shows  clearly 
this  relation. 

Remove  one  of  the  seeds.  Does  the  stalk  come  off  with 
the  seed?4  The  scar  left  by  the  breaking  of  the  stalk  is 
called  the  hiliim.  A  seed  of  the  lima  bean  may  best  be  used 
for  this  point,  as  it  is  larger.  On  the  same  margin  of  the  seed 


1  The  relation  should  be  determined  by  examining  ripe  pods  during 
and  after  seed  expulsion.     Wild  species  must  generally  be  used. 

2  The  attachment  of  the  seeds  is  alternately  on  one  valve  and  the 
other,  and  not  in  the  middle  plane. 

8  On  the  side  toward  the  receptacle.      Loose  seeds  can  be  placed  in 
their  proper  relative  position  in  the  pod  if  this  point  is  determined. 
4  It  is  left  attached  to  the  pod. 


148  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

as  the  translucent  lump  is  a  minute  opening,  the  micropyle. 
The  micropyle  is  of  use  in  many  plants  as  a  way  for  the 
pollen  tube  to  enter  the  young  seed.  Now  remove  the  seed- 
coat,  being  careful  to  notice  the  relative  position  of  its  outer 
markings  and  the  inside  structures  of  the  embryo.  The  mass 
within  separates  easily  into  three  pieces,  two  big  halves,  the 
cotyledons,1  seen  above  in  the  transverse  section  of  the  pod, 
and  the  young  primary  shoot.  How  are  the  cotyledons  and 
the  stem  united  ? 2  Draw.  The  upper  part  of  the  shoot  ends 
in  a  primary  bud,  the  plumule.  The  lower  part  (hypocotyl) 
of  the  stem  ends  in  the  rootlet  or  radicle*  The  cotyledons 
are  joined  to  the  stem  at  a  point  between  the  radicle  and 
plumule.  That  part  of  the  stem  above  the  insertion  of  the 
cotyledons,  /.  e.,  between  these  and  the  plumule,  is  the  epi- 
cotyl.  The  part  below  the  cotyledons  is  the  hypocotyl.  Make 
a  drawing  of  these  parts. 

Passing  a  scalpel  between  the  cotyledons,  split  another 
seed  exactly  into  halves.  The  knife  should  pass  through  the 
middle  of  the  shoot  and  divide  it  lengthwise.  You  can  see  in 
the  shoot  some  translucent  lines.  Follow  them  out  as  far  as 
you  can.  They  are  the  vascular  tissue,  along  which  the 
water,  with  substances  in  solution,  is  transferred  from  one  part 
of  the  plantlet  to  the  other.  Notice  also  a  translucent  tip  of 
the  radicle,  the  root-cap,  a  thimble- shaped  mass  of  tissue  which 
grows  from  within  out,  and  so  protects  the  root  from  injury  as 
it  bores  its  way  down  into  the  ground.  Draw  the  exposed 
surface,  showing  the  seed-coat  and  all  the  parts  as  they  lie 
within,  including  the  vascular  tissue  and  root-cap. 


1  Certain  recent  views  as  to  the  homology  of  the  cotyledons  are  not 
sufficiently  substantiated  yet  to  warrant  discussion  before   elementary 
students. 

2  By  the  stalks  of  the  cotyledons.     The  narrow  portion  should  show 
clearly  in  the  drawing  made. 

3  There  is  likely  to  be  some  difficulty  in  determining  the  lower  limit 
of  the  hypocotyl,  but  this  can  be  made  clear  with  the  use  of  a  solution 
of  permanganate  of  potash,  which  does  not  readily  stain  the  cuticularized 
hypocotyl,  while  the  root  on  the  other  hand  is  deeply  stained. 


DISCUSSION  OF   THE   COURSE  IN  BOTANY      149 

INDIAN  CORN.  Materials.  —  Mature  sweet  corn  on  the  cob. 
Grains  of  field  corn  (flint  corn  preferably)  and  pop-corn 
("  rice  "  variety)  ;  very  young  grains  of  any  kind  of  corn,  with 
"  silk  "  undisturbed.1 

Outline  of  Laboratory  Study.  —  i .  Compare  several  dry 
grains  of  "field  "  corn  or  "  sweet  "  corn  and  note  the  variation 
inform.  In  what  do  fresh  grains  differ  from  dry  ones?2  The 
rough  point  is  the  place  of  attachment  of  the  grain  to  the 
"  cob  "  or  stalk.  At  or  near  the  end  of  the  light,  oval  patch, 
away  from  the  pedicel,  one  may  find  a  small  tubercle,  the  base 
of  the  withered  style.  Compare  this  ripe  grain  with  a  young 
one,  taken  when  the  corn  is  silking  out.  Make  drawings  of  a 
young  and  of  an  old  grain  in  the  same  relative  position,  to 
show  the  comparison.3  Label  all  the  parts.  Compare  with  a 
grain  of  "  rice  "  pop-corn  and  notice  that  the  base  of  the  style 
is  hollow.  Draw  carefully  a  grain  of  pop-corn.  The  whole 
bean,  pod  and  seeds,  is  termed  fruit.  What  is  a  corn  grain?4 

2.  The  oval  patch  above  referred  to  indicates  the  position 
of  the  embryo.  From  a  soaked  grain  of "  field  "  corn  and  of 
"pop  "  corn  dissect  off  the  outer  tough  membrane.  To  what 
does  this  correspond  in  the  bean  ? 5  Now  carefully  dissect  the 
embryo  out  of  the  hard  yellow  mass,  which  is  a  food  tissue 
(here  the  endosperm).  Draw  the  embryo  from  two  points  of 
view,  to  show  all  the  external  features.  On  the  flat  side, 
notice  that  a  small  cylindrical  structure  lies  buried  in  a  fold  of 
a  larger  mass,  the  cotyledon.  Dissect  the  embryo  so  as  to 
fix  in  mind  the  relations  of  these  two  parts.  That  end  of  the 


1  See  True,  R.  H.,  On  the  Development  of  the  Caryopsis  (Botanical 
Gazette,  18:212-226,  1893)  for  description  of  the  integuments  and  their 
fate. 

'2  They  differ  according  to  the  relative  amount  of  water;  e. g.,  sweet 
corn  is  shrunken  when  dry. 

8  Lateral  views  are  necessary.  The  teacher  should  insist  upon  the 
importance  of  having  the  sketches  in  the  same  relative  position. 

4  Inasmuch  as  the  style  is  distinguishable,  the  grain  evidently  corre- 
sponds to  the  bean  pod  and  included  seeds,  and  is  therefore  also  a  fruit. 

*  To  the  pod. 


ISO  THE   TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

cylindrical  structure  which  is  directed  toward  the  style  is  the 
plumule.  Where  is  the  stem  ? 1  Take  three  other  grains  ;  cut 
two  in  halves  longitudinally,  one  to  be  cut  parallel  to  the  broad 
face,  the  other  to  the  edge,  and  the  third  transversely,  through 
the  middle  point  of  the  embryo.  Study  the  exposed  surface 
in  each  case.  Draw  and  label  the  parts.  The  endosperm  and 
embryo  together  with  a  very  thin  membrane,  difficult  to  recog- 
nize, are  the  seed.  What  main  points  of  difference  are  there 
between  the  fruit  of  the  Indian  corn  and  that  of  the  bean 
plant?2  Which  is  the  more  similar  to  the  bean  fruit,  the 
"  field  "  corn  or  the  "  pop  "  corn  grain,  and  in  what  way?8 

CASTOR- OIL  PLANT.  Materials. — Young  ovaries  and  fairly 
mature  fruits.  Seeds  (variety  Zanzibar  ens  is}  well  soaked. 

Outline  of  Laboratory  Study.  —  i.  Examine  the  features  of 
a  well-developed  fruit.  Identify  the  parts  which  you  have 
learned  in  connection  with  the  other  materials.  Compare  the 
young  and  old  condition  of  a  fruit.  How  does  this  differ  as 
to  the  number  and  arrangement  of  parts  with  the  bean  fruit? 
Examine  a  fruit  cut  through  the  middle  transversely.  Can  you 
now  see  the  partitions  which  separate  seed  cavities  of  fruit? 
How  many?  How  many  seeds  do  you  find?  Is  there  any 
unoccupied  space  in  the  seed  cavities?  Is  it  more  like  corn 
or  bean  in  this  respect?  Do  you  find  any  sutures  here  as  in 
the  bean  ?  Examine  a  section  of  a  fruit  cut  through  the  middle 
of  a  seed  longitudinally.  Where  is  a  seed  attached  to  the 
wall?  Recall  the  relative  position  of  the  hilum  and  the 
micropyle  in  the  bean,  and  find  the  micropyle  in  the  castor- 
oil  seed.  Draw  to  show  the  above  points. 

2.  Study  the  mature  seed  of  the  castor-oil  plant.  The  shape, 
color,  and  markings  have  been  suggested  as  protective,  through 


1  It  extends  from  the  plumule,  between  the  folds  of  the  cotyledon,  to 
the  root  (radicle). 

2  The  pod  encloses  one  seed  tightly  in  corn ;   in  the  bean  the  pod 
encloses  several  seeds  loosely. 

8  The  hollow  at  the  base  of  the  style  in  the  rice  pop-corn  grain  makes 
the  comparison  with  the  bean  pod  closer  than  in  the  case  of  the  field 
corn  grain,  where  no  unoccupied  space  is  to  be  found. 


DISCUSSION  OF  THE   COURSE   IN  BOTANY      151 

their  mimicry  of  a  beetle.1  From  the  hilum  along  one  side 
of  the  seed  runs  a  low  ridge  (the  raphe)  ending  at  the  other 
end  of  the  seed,  in  the  chalaza.  Is  this  point  in  the  same 
relative  position  as  in  the  bean?  Note  that  the  micropyle  is 
surrounded  by  a  mass  of  soft,  spongy  tissue,  which  may  be  of 
use,  though  of  what  use  is  problematical.  Crack  open  the 
hard  shell  or  test.  Notice  at  the  point  beneath  the  chalaza  a 
reddish-colored  area,  from  which  run  veins  in  all  directions. 
These  have  served  for  carrying  food  to  the  developing  embryo 
and  endosperm.  Examin  the  diagram  which  will  help  you  to 
understand  these  points.  Split  open  the  kernel  in  its  largest 
plane.  The  embryo  will  thus  be  discovered  lying  in  a  large  mass 
of  endosperm.  The  conical  hypocotyl  and  radicle  are  at  once 
seen.  Are  the  cotyledons  more  or  less  leaf-like  than  in  the 
bean?  State  your  reasons.8  Carefully  remove  an  embryo 
from  the  endosperm,  injuring  it  as  little  as  possible.  Is  the 
nature  of  the  food  suggested  to  you?  Make  drawings  which 
will  show  clearly  the  embryo  and  endosperm. 

PINE.  Materials.  —  Ripe  cones  of  fir,4  preferably ;  or  of 
pine ;  young  cones  of  same  kind ;  large  pine  seeds.5 

Outline  of  Laboratory  Study.  —  i .  Examine  first  a  cone  of 
the  pine  or  fir  tree.  Study  a  scale  which  has  been  removed. 
Look  for  a  thin  bract  or  leaf-like  structure  on  the  under  side 
of  the  scale.  Notice  the  two  seeds  and  their  wings  attached 


1  A  good  chance  is  offered  the  teacher  to  scrutinize  the  value  of  this 
explanation. 

2  A   diagram    of   longitudinal    section    through    the    micropyle    and 
chalaza  I  find  almost  a  necessity.     This  seed  is  quite  difficult  enough  in 
any  case.     It  is  better  for  the  student  to  be  helped  to  get  a  clear  idea  of 
the  seed  than  through  lack  of  judicious  help  to  get  a  meagre  one.     The 
structure  of  the  test  and  tegmen  may  thus  be  made  clear  if  the  instructor 
goes  into  the  matter.     At  any  rate,  it  is  very  seldom  that  students  can 
make  out  the  micropyle  satisfactorily,  though  they  often  think  that  they 
do.     The  diagram  should  therefore  show  this  clearly,  and  should  also 
show  the  chalaza  pores. 

8  Thin,  leaf-like  venation  evident. 

*  Fir  is  the  best,  since  the  scales  fall  away  readily. 

5  Large  kinds  may  be  purchased  from  seedsmen. 


152  THE   TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

to  the  upper  side  of  the  scale.     How  does  this  arrangement 
differ  from  those  in  the  three  forms  you  have  studied?1 

2.  Compare  a  young  scale   with  an  old  one;  find  all  the 
parts,  and  draw  by  measure  so  as  to  show  the  old  and  young 
scales  comparatively.     Which  parts  develop  most  as  the  scale 
grows  ? 

3.  Study  a  pine-seed  and  wing.     How  is  a  seed  attached  to 
a  wing?     Is  the  wing  a  part  of  the  seed  or  of  the  scale? 

Notice  that  the  oval  seed  shows  no  external  characters  like 
those  found  in  other  seeds  you  have  studied,  save  the  micro- 
pyle  which  may  be  seen  at  the  narrow  end.  Split  open  the 
seed  according  to  instructions 2  which  will  be  given  you, 
and  you  will  then  be  able  to  make  out  the  thickness  of  the 
hard  seed  covering,  which,  however,  thins  out  toward  the 
micropyle.  Make  a  drawing  to  show  the  characters. 

By  carefully  dissecting  the  kernel  find  the  embryo  buried  in 
the  endosperm.  How  many  cotyledons  does  the  pine  seed 
have  ? 8  If  you  split  a  kernel  longitudinally  you  will  be  better 
able  to  make  out  the  very  big  root-cap  which  covers  the  end 
of  the  root.  Draw. 

Notes.  —  The  above  detailed  outline  of  study  calls  for  a  fair 
amount  of  original  work  by  the  pupil.  It  avowedly  follows  to 
some  degree  the  verification  method,  without,  it  is  hoped,  free- 
ing the  pupil  from  the  necessity  of  using  his  own  abilities.  The 
question  method  is  used  to  an  extent  sufficient  to  the  purpose 
of  leading  him  to  do  this. 

The  sequence  of  types  which  makes  the  Indian  corn  the 
second  form  studied  is  of  advantage  in  instituting  comparison, 
since  but  a  single  locule  is  present  in  the  ovary  of  the  first  two 
types  studied.  As  to  classification,  no  confusion  appears  to 
result,  since  the  question  is  not  taken  up  at  the  beginning. 

1  The  seed  is  not  enclosed  within  a  pod,  but  lies  on  the  upper  surface 
of  the  structure  which  bears  it. 

2  Whittle  off  a  little  from  the  edge  of  the  seed,  when  a  dark  line  —  a 
suture— will  be  seen.     Carefully  insert  a  knife  point,  resting  the  thumb 
on  the  seed,  and  pry  open. 

8  According  to  the  species.     Pinus  Coulteri  about  fifteen. 


DISCUSSION  OF   THE   COURSE  IN  BOTANY      153 

The  student  should  be  guided  to  see  essential  things  and 
to  pass  over  non-essentials.  For  example,  the  protuberances 
on  the  Ricinus  ovary  are  of  no  moment  in  this  work,  and  time 
may  be  lost  in  trying  to  draw  them.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
may  be  contended  that  it  is  worth  while  to  draw  attention 
to  such  a  prominent  structure  as  the  caruncle  on  the  Ricinus 
seed,  since  every  plant  or  part  of  a  plant  may  have  something 
more  or  less  different  from  every  other.  There  is  a  danger  in 
studying  types  of  forming  an  expectation  that  all  plants  will 
conform  wholly  to  the  types  studied.  This  expectation  is 
often  too  strong. 

The  knowledge  gained  by  following  the  above  outline  is 
sufficient  for  a  basis  for  some  thoroughly  good  work  in 
physiology  and  ecology.  The  experiments  in  these  subjects 
may  be  carried  on  by  the  instructor  and  students  while  the 
laboratory  work  is  being  followed,  and  some  observations  and 
simple  experiments  may  be  done  as  home  work.  The  follow- 
ing is  a  statement  of  these  parts  of  the  study. 

Ecology. 

The  study  of  the  outline  above  will  give  the  pupil  training 
in  observation  and  comparison,  and  will  also  put  him  in  pos- 
session of  facts  and  a  terminology  for  doing  a  good  deal  of 
interesting  and  valuable  work  in  ecology  and  physiology. 
For  convenience  in  discussion  we  give  an  outline  of  work  in 
ecology  first,  but  in  practice  it  may  be  done,  in  part  at  least 
parallel  to  the  work  given  above.  Physiology  and  ecology  — 
at  least  if  the  latter  is  taken  in  its  modern  and  proper  meaning 
—  merge  into  each  other,  so  that  it  is  practically  difficult  to 
separate  them. 

The  materials  used  for  the  studies  here  given  are  chiefly 
those  already  used  above  with  some  others  indicated  below. 

i.  Conditions  under  which  germination  takes  place.  Sug- 
gestions for  experiments  on  this  topic  (air,  water)  are  given 
in  Bergen's  Foundations,  p.  10.  This  work  may  usually  be 
carried  on  in  the  higher  grades,  or  by  pupils  as  home  work. 


154  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

2.  Localization  of  absorption  of  water.     The   presence  of 
an  opening  in  seeds,  as  prominent  as  in  the  bean,  is  generally 
seized  upon  as  an  instance  of  adaptation  for  the  entrance  of 
water,  and  has  been  so  interpreted  in  some  cases.     It  is,  how- 
ever, capable  of  experimental  investigation. 

(a)  Take  bean  seeds  with  unbroken  tests.     By  applying  a 
thin  coat  of  soft  paraffin  with  a  warm  needle,  and  placing  in 
water,  the  failure  of  the  test  to  expand  whenever  so  protected 
from  the  water  shows  that  paraffin  prevents  absorption. 

(b)  Seal  the  micropyles  of  a  dozen  seeds,  place  in  water 
to  examine  at  frequent  intervals.     The  buckling  of  the  test 
shows  where  the  water  is  most  quickly  absorbed.     Each  pupil 
should  record  when  and  where  the  buckling  first  takes  place, 
by  using  a  diagram. 

(c)  The   hilum  and  strophiole  may  be   investigated  simi- 
larly. 

(d)  The  method  of  weighing  at  different  times  may  also  be 
carried  out,  but  is  on  the  whole  no  more  instructive.     The 
ultimate  question  is,  Is  germination  delayed  by  such  experi- 
mentation?    This  may  be   tried  by  planting  seeds  variously 
treated,   in    moist    sphagnum     or    sawdust    without    previous 
soaking. 

(e)  Similar  experiments  may  be  tried  on  other  seeds,  e.g. 
castor  oil :  seal  the  chalazal  pore,  micropyle,  caruncle. 

(f)  How  does  the  test  behave  in  some  other  seeds  ?   (e .  g. 
radish,  flax).1 

In  discussion  a  beautiful  case  which  is  worth  speaking  of  is 
the  American  mistletoe,  though  here,  of  course,  the  adhesive 
coat  is  derived  from  the  pericarp.2 

3.  The  rupture   of  the  seed-coats  (or  pericarp  in  certain 
forms).     The   embryo  is  enclosed  within  a  resistant  test,  and 


1  Rapidly  absorbs  water,  and  becomes  mucilaginous. 

2  Von    Schrenk,    H.,   Notes   on    Arceuthobium    pusillum,   Rhodora, 
2:2-5,  P1-  12,  January,  1900.     MacDougal,  D.  T.,  Seed  Dissemination 
and  Distribution  of  Razoumofskya  robusta,  Minnesota  Botanical  Studies^ 
2:169-173,  pis.  15,  16.     22  February,  1899. 


DISCUSSION   OF   THE   COURSE  IN  BOTANY      155 

so  must  do  work  in  breaking  it  and  thus  emerging.  Is  this 
process  constant  in  any  particular  form  ?  This  question  may 
be  answered  intelligently  by  the  pupil  by  careful  examination 
of  the  earliest  evidences  of  the  rupture  of  the  test,  where  it 
has  taken  place.  The  pea  is  a  good  one  for  such  observation. 
The  question  is  often  put  forward  by  a  pupil  in  raising  the 
point  that  the  micropyle,  being  opposite  the  radicle,  serves  for 
a  place  for  emergence  of  the  radicle,  and  indeed  is  so  ex- 
plained in  some  books. 

(a)  Examine  a  dozen  peas  which  are  commencing  to  germi- 
nate.    Does  the  rupture  always  occur  in  the  same  place?     If 
so,   where?      How  caused?      Is   the   growth  of  the   embryo 
localized?1 

(b)  Is  the  micropyle  useful  in  the  pine  seed  ?     After  soaking 
well,  wrap  the  micropylar  end  of  the  seed  with  fine  wire  and 
plant. 

(c)  What  is  the  behavior  of    the  pericarp  in  the    Indian 
corn  grain?     Look  for  cases  in  which   the   behavior  is    not 
normal  and  describe  results  observed.2 

(d)  In  the  castor-oil  seed,  are  the  cracks  in  the  test  (which 
is  very  hard)  constant  in  any  particular?     Is  there  any  weak 
point  in  the   test   which  throws  light   on  the  distribution  of 
cracks  ? 3    Is  there  any  localized  growth  in  embryo  or  endosperm 
which  stands  in  causal  relation  to  the  cracking  of  the  test. 

Careful  observation  and  experimentation  as  above  outlined 
lays  a  good  foundation  for  the  appreciation  of  such  special 
forms  as  the  squash. 

(e)  Place  squash  seeds  in  various  positions,  and  allow  to 
germinate.     Does  the  position  in  which  the  seed  is  placed  have 
any   relation  to   the   position  in  which  the  "peg"  occurs?4 
(Correlate  with  the  experiments  in  physiology  on  geotropism.) 

1  In  the  axis. 

2  Sometimes  the  pericarp  does  not  split  properly,  and  the  coleoptile 
is  quite  hampered  thereby. 

8  At  the  micropyle. 

4  Lloyd,  F.  E.,  The  "  Peg,"  or  "  Heel,"  in  Seedlings  of  the  Cucurbi 
taceas.  Torreya,  i :  1 20.  October,  1901. 


156  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

(f)  There  may  profitably  be  discussed  the  special  adaptation, 
in  the  date  (which  may  be  grown  readily  in  the  laboratory) 
and  cocoanut.  In  these  forms  there  is  a  locally  specialized 
area  connected  with  the  pushing  out  of  the  radicle.  In  some 
plants  (date  and  many  palms)  a  definite  "  plug  "  is  formed. 
The  common  Tradescantia  is  a  very  good  example  of  the 
same  thing,  and  may  easily  be  grown.  Correlate  these  — 
using  the  date  and  cocoanut  as  special  examples. 

4.  The  behavior  of  seedlings  in  breaking  their  way  up- 
ward through  the  soil.  This  may  be  made  a  good  test  for 
the  morphological  lessons  learned,  as  well  as  one  of  adaptive 
behavior.  Is  the  way  in  which  the  soil  is  bored  through 
the  same  in  all  seedlings?  In  those  in  which  the  action  is 
the  same,  are  the  same  morphological  parts  involved  in  the 
same  way? 

(a)  Indian  corn.     What  part  grows  upward  through  the 
soil?  (Straight  plumule.)     Get  a  good  idea  of  the  mechanism 
by  determinating   the  rate   of  growth   in   the    epicotyl  and 
coleoptile    (sheath   leaf  of  plumule).     Is  the  length  of  the 
first  determined  by  the  depth  of  the  soil  covering  the  grain? 
Plant  at  different  depths ;    or,   after  the  tips  of  the  plumule 
appear,   cover   with    cards   (previously  paraffined  to    prevent 
warping)    with   small  holes   for  the   shoot     to  grow  through. 
Raise  the    card    to  different  heights   above   the   soil   surface, 
excluding  light   from  the  sides.     Is    soil  or  light  or  moisture 
the    determining    factor?      Mechanical    advantage    of    this 
behavior,  as  indicated  by  the  positions    in   which   roots  ap- 
pear? 

(b)  What  part  of  the  pea  embryo  makes  its  way  through 
the  soil?     Of  the  common  bean?    Of  the  squash?     Is  this  be- 
havior correlated  with  form  and  function   of  the  cotyledons  ? 
Compare   these   with   the    castor-oil  seedling    (in  which  the 
cotyledons  are  thin,   but  are  in  contact  with  a  bulky  endo- 
sperm). 

(c)  Onion  seedlings.     Study  carefully  the  germination  and 
growth  of  some  onion  seedlings  until  a  second  leaf  appears. 


DISCUSSION  OF  THE   COURSE  IN  BOTANY      157 

In  what  respect  is  this  plant  like  others  studied  (pea,  squash) 
in  the  way  it  comes  through  the  soil?  What  is  the  function 
of  the  cotyledon  in  the  onion  and  castor  oil?  Compare 
behavior  of  cotyledon  in  these  with  Indian  corn,  date,  and 
cocoanut.1 

The  facts  here  brought  out  supply  the  starting-point  for  a 
study  of  digestion'  and  food  absorption,  under  physiology. 

Plant  onion  seeds  in  sawdust  and  pretty  firm  soil  at  the 
depth  of  two  cm.  Does  the  curve  which  first  appears  look 
alike  under  the  two  conditions?  The  result  may  be  inter- 
preted as  a  form  response  to  the  mechanical  conditions  in  the 
substratum.  The  cotyledon  of  the  onion  is  a  good  example 
of  an  organ  serving  three  functions,  haustorial  action,  pro- 
pulsion, and  photosynthesis. 

(d)  Pine  seedlings  should  be  studied,  and  by  comparing 
with  the  above  types,  it  should  be  decided  whether  they  con- 
form to  any  or  are  different,  and  if  the  latter,  in  what  regard  ? 2 

5.  Compensatory  growth  after  injuries.  One  of  the  most 
constant  dangers  to  a  young  seedling  is  from  predatory 
animals.  How  far  a  seedling  may  overcome  such  injury  may 
be  determined  by  the  experiment  of  removing  one  or  another 
part.  E.g.y  remove  the  plumule  of  the  pea  and  similarly  remove 
subsequently  formed  shoots.  Remove  the  hypocotyl.  Obtain 


1  In  the  castor-oil  seed  the  cotyledons  remain  for  some  time  in  con- 
nection with  the  endosperm,  and  absorb  food  from  it.      They  afterwards 
become  exposed  to  air  and  light,  functioning  as  foliage  leaves.     In  the 
onion   the   cotyledon   lengthens   very   considerably,  curving,   after   the 
manner  of  the  epicotyl  in  the  pea  and  the  hypocotyl  in  the  bean,  and, 
like  these,  breaking   upwards    through   the   soil.     The   portion   of  the 
curved  cotyledon  thus  exposed  to  air  and  light  then  becomes  photo- 
synthetic,  while  the  distal  end  still  remains  in  contact  with  the  endo- 
sperm, drawing  food  from  it.     In  corn  the  sheath  leaf  (coleoptile),  the' 
homology  of  which  is  not  agreed  upon,  grows  straight  upwards,  pushing 
through  the  soil,  but  does  not  become  photosynthetic,  except,  perhaps, 
to  a  very  slight  degree.     In  the  date  the  first  foliage  leaf  (the  first  leaf 
above  the  cotyledon)  grows  in  the  same  manner,  but  becomes  a  func- 
tional leaf.     In  the  cocoanut  the  first  leaf  has  to  bore  through  the  husk, 
the  cotyledon  acting  as  a  haustorium. 

2  The  curve  is  in  the  hypocotyl,  passing  often  into  the  cotyledons. 


158  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

acorns  and  separate  one  of  the  cotyledons  from  the  stem  at 
the  base  of  the  petiole,1  after  the  plumule  is  visible. 

Field  Work. 

It  is  distinctly  profitable  to  carry  out  some  field  work  to 
enlarge  the  scope  of  the  pupils'  observations.  Some  useful 
suggestions  for  such  exercises  have  been  published  by  Robi- 
son.2  It  is  well  to  have  definite  problems  in  mind,  based  upon 
the  pupils'  work.  The  following  topics  are  suggested  : 

What  general  difference  of  behavior  is  there  between  many- 
seeded  and  one-seeded  fruits  when  fully  mature?  Does  de- 
hiscence  take  place  in  dead  and  dried  ovaries  only?  (The 
behavior  in  Impatiens  should  be  carefully  observed  and  re- 
called later  under  the  subject  of  turgor.) 

Observe  particularly  the  movements  of  the  valves  of  pea  or 
bean  fruits.  What  is  the  condition  under  which  these  take 
place  ?  What  does  the  direction  of  the  striations  (or  grain)  of 
the  valves  indicate  in  this  connection?  Look  for  other  fruits 
(e.g.,  castor  oil)  in  which  you  find  the  same  striation  in  the 
walls  of  the  fruit,  and  compare  the  movements  of  dehiscence 
throughout. 

Study  other  mechanisms  from  the  point  of  view  here  gained. 

Distinguish  between  active  and  passive  methods  of  dissem- 
ination, and  determine  the  relative  effectiveness. 

Examine  the  peduncles  of  young  and  old  flowers  and  fruit 
of  various  plants,  and  observe  the  (carpotropic)  movements 
which  they  undergo.  Do  the  movements  supplement  in  any 
way  the  other  organs  in  the  dissemination  of  the  seeds? 

Look  for  fruits  with  awns,  e.g.,  Erodium,  Stipa.  See  how 
the  awns  behave  under  varying  degrees  of  moisture.  These 
suggestions  may  not  all  be  followed,  but  are  given  to  show  the 
direction  which  may  be  profitably  given  to  field  work. 

Pupils  may  be  encouraged  to  collect  materials  and   study 


1  Lloyd,  F.  E.,  Teratological  Notes.     Bulletin   Torrey  Club,  22 :  396, 
pi.  247.     September,  1895. 

2  Outlines  for  Field  Studies  of  Some  Common  Plants,  pp.  31-35. 


DISCUSSION  OF   THE   COURSE  IN  BOTANY      159 

them.     As  careful  records  should  be  kept  of  field  observations 
as  of  other  work. 

Physiology. 

The  teacher  must  distinguish  between  experiments  which 
teach  special  things  about  seeds,  and  those  which  illustrate 
general  physiological  truths.  The  work  in  physiology  for  high- 
school  students  may  be  for  the  most  part  taken  during  the 
first  half  of  the  course,  which  should  constitute  an  introduction 
to  the  remainder. 

It  will  be  unnecessary  to  outline  experiments  which  are  else- 
where described,  it  being  our  purpose  to  indicate  what  may 
properly  and  profitably  be  done  in  connection  with  the  above 
outlines  on  the  morphology  and  ecology  of  the  fruit  and  seed. 

Expenditure  of  Energy  by  the  Living  Plant.  —  Aside  from 
energy  whose  expenditure  is  not  visibly  demonstrative,  that, 
namely,  expended  in  metabolism,  a  large  amount  may  be 
measured,  which  the  plant  uses  directly  in  adjusting  itself  to 
its  environment. 

Growth  is  of  course  merely  a  form  of  movements  in  general 
involving  the  expenditure  of  energy.  It  offers  a  distinct 
pedagogical  advantage  to  commence  physiology  by  demon- 
strating that  a  living  plant  does  expend  energy.  Growing 
seedlings  may  be  used  with  great  clearness  of  results. 

1.  Expenditure  of  energy  by  growth,      (a)   Show  that  the 
upward  growth  of  the  hypocotyl  or  other  organ  through  the 
soil,  involves  lifting  and  pushing  aside   of   the  soil.      Direct 
observation  will  furnish  data. 

(b)  The  pushing  downward  through  the  soil  of  a  root  is 
clearly  another  example. 

2.  Show  that  there  are  other   (metabolic)  processes  going 
on  which  result  in  the  expenditure  of  energy,  e.g.  heat.     This 
may  be  done  by  registering  the  temperature  of  growing  seeds. 

In  discussing  the  phenomenon  of  heat  evolution,  reference 
may  be  made  to  the  heat  produced  in  decaying  compost  and 
how  it  may  be  utilized,  e.g.,  in  making  beds  in  forcing- frames. 


160  THE   TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

The  determination  of  the  fact  of  the  expenditure  of  energy 
serves  as  a  motive  for  tracing  the  source  of  energy  for  the 
growing  seedling. 

To  do  this  one  may  proceed  as  follows  : 

(a)  Remove    the  cotyledons  from  a  young  pea  seedling. 
(i)    Does  it  grow?     (2)    Does  it  therefore  expend  energy? 

(b)  Remove  the  endosperm  from  some  young  Indian  corn 
seedlings.     Plant  some  of  these  and  affix  to  the  cotyledon  of 
each  of  several  others  a  little  mass  of  stiff  cornstarch  paste. 
Do  these  grow  equally  well  and  why? 

The  general  conclusion  arrived  at  will  be  that  to  grow,  to 
do  work,  food  is  necessary.  It  is  therefore  the  source  of 
energy  for  the  growing  seedling.  The  parent  plant  as  the 
source  of  food  may  be  alluded  to,  but  its  activities  in  this 
connection  are  taken  up  later.  The  ecology  of  storage  organs 
in  the  seed  should  also  be  brought  up  as  well  as  the  resulting 
value  of  seeds  as  food  for  man. 

The  question  of  physiological  importance  now  is,  by  what 
means  is  food  manipulated  in  the  plant  so  as  to  make  its 
energy  available,  /.  e.,  to  accomplish  its  release. 

This  topic  involves  the  matters  of  oxygenation,  oxidation, 
and  excretion  of  carbon  dioxid  and  of  the  chemical  and 
physical  nature  of  foods.  Perhaps  the  best  way,  certainly  a 
very  good  way,  is  to  take  up  first  the  gas  exchange  in  growing 
seedlings. 

1.  Show  that  a  gas  exchange  does  take  place  when  seeds 
are  growing.     Make  the  result  more  general  by  using  also  the 
petals    of  flowers    (rose    petals   which  are   taken  from  large 
expanding  buds),  fungi  (toadstools,  mushroom,  etc.).1 

2.  Determine  what  this   exchange  is   by  determining  the 
resultant  gaseous  bodies. 

(a)  Shake  up  in  a  given  volume  of  air  some  baryta  water 
(barium  hydroxid  solution)  and  note  degree  of  milkiness. 

(b)  Treat  a  like  volume  of  air  in  which  a  taper  has  burned 


1  See  MacDougal's  Elementary  Plant  Physiology,  Fig.  75. 


DISCUSSION  OF  THE   COURSE  IN  BOTANY      l6l 

a  few  minutes,  to  show  that  barium  hydrate  is  an  indicator,  that 
after  burning,  a  gas  which  causes  the  milkiness  is  present  now 
in  greater  proportion. 

The  information  must  be  given  that  the  gas  is  CO2  (carbon 
dioxid)  indicating  how  this  is  determined. 

(c)  Pass  the  breath  through  baryta  water  to  show  that  CO2 
gas  passes  off  from  the  body. 

(d)  Show  in  -  the  same  way  that  plants  excrete  CCV1     It 
may  be  inferred  that  an  oxidation  goes  on  in  living  organisms 
and  that  a  plant  produces  heat  by  oxidation,  and  by  analogy, 
other  forms  of  energy.     Show  this  to  be  so  as  follows  : 

(e)  Seedlings  will  not  grow  unless  they  have  oxygen.2     They 
cannot    therefore    do   any  work.      (Do  movements  occur  in 
absence  of  oxygen  ?     See  if  a  root  will  bend  in  an  atmosphere 
of  hydrogen.) 

(f)  When  they  do  grow,  they  produce  a  volume  of  CO2 
equal  to  the  volume  of  oxygen  used.3 

(g)  Some  seeds  will  produce  CO2  when  no  free  oxygen  is 
present,  e.g.,   peas    (intramolecular  respiration).     If  two  or 
three  peas  are  placed,  after  soaking,  in  a  small  test-tube  which 
has  first  been  filled  with  mercury,  and  inverted  so  as  to  stand 
in  a  small  vessel 8  the  amount  of  CO2  set  free  in  a  night  will 
displace  a  good  deal  of  the  mercury.     Introduce  a  particle  of 
caustic    potash.     Note   the  rapidity  with   which    the   CO2   is 
absorbed,  the  mercury  again  filling  the  test-tube,  or  nearly  .so. 
While  it  is  probably  not  necessary  to  discuss  the  process  of 
intramolecular  respiration,  the  teacher  should  be  fully  cognizant 
of  it. 

Having  shown  that   food   is   the  source  of  energy  for  the 
plant,  and  that  the  energy  may  be  obtained  therefrom  by  oxi- 


1  See  MacDougal's  Elementary  Plant  Physiology,  pp.  loo-m,  for  an 
excellent  brief  presentation  of  respiration  in  its  modern  aspect. 

2  For  fjirther  suitable  experiments   see   Ganong's  Plant  Physiology, 
pp.  96,  97.     Straight  test-tubes  will   do  if   the  seeds  are   supported  by 
wire  gauze. 

8  Use  a  test-tube  just  a  little  larger  in  diameter  than  the  seeds  used. 


1 62  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

dation,  a  convenient  opportunity  is  thus  afforded  to  take  up 
the  study  of  the  foods  which  occur  in  seeds.  The  object  of 
such  study  is  to  determine  the  kinds  of  foods  and  their  physi- 
cal characters  which  have  important  physiological  bearings. 
There  is  also  the  lesson  which  may  be  touched  upon  at  this 
time  of  the  great  economic  importance  of  seeds  as  sources  of 
food  of  all  kinds  for  man,  not  to  mention  other  uses.  Of 
course,  the  chemical  nature  of  these  foods  is  a  matter  which 
is  too  difficult  for  the  high-school  student,  and  such  informa- 
tion as  may  be  made  use  of  later  must  be  given. 

The  method  of  study  here  advocated  is  as  follows:  i.  Ex- 
amine the  various  foods  occurring  in  seeds  by  the  method  of 
extraction  —  the  method  of  the  physiological  chemist  —  one 
which  has  been  found  to  be  very  practicable  both  on  account 
of  the  conclusive  character  of  the  results  and  on  account  of 
the  removal  of  all  but  the  simplest  of  the  microchemical  tests, 
which  are  generally  not  at  all  adapted  to  young  beginners.1 
The  tests  should  be  made  first  on  the  substance,  a  well-known 
food,  to  be  used  as  a  criterion,  and  then  upon  the  extracts. 

2.  Test  the  solubility  and  the  diffusibility  of  some  foods. 
It  is  not  profitable  to  take  up  all  of  them,  since  starch,  cane 
sugar,  and  grape  sugar  serve  to  illustrate  well  the  principle 
involved. 

3.  Recall  the  anatomical  conditions  which    are   found   in, 
e.g.,  the  corn  grain,  in  which  the  starch  occurs  in  the  endo- 
sperm, while  the  expenditure  of  energy  is  in  the  roots  and 
shoots,  together  with  the  facts  that  (a)  although  the  starch  is 
removed  from  the  endosperm  it  does  not  appear  as  starch  in 
the  root  and  shoot,  and  (b)  that  the  haustorium  (cotyledon, 
scutellum)    is   non-perforate,  its   surface    being   smooth   and 
continuous. 

4.  Test  the  diffusibility  of  the  product  of  starch  and  diastase 
and  show  it  to  be  grape  sugar,  thus  making  clear  the  value  of 
digestion. 


1  Lloyd,  F.  E.,  Botany  in  the  Horace  Mann  School.     Teachers  College 
Record,  2  :  1-4,  30-59.     January,  1901. 


DISCUSSION  OF  THE  COURSE  IN  BOTANY     163 

The  outline  for  this  work  presented  somewhat  in  detail  is 
as  follows : 

Foods. — The  kinds  of  foods  and  methods  of  determining 
their  occurrence,1  especially  in  seeds. 

(a)  Proteids.     Demonstration  of  the  reactions   of  an  ac- 
knowledged proteid  by  applying  the  following  tests  to  a  weak 
solution  of  egg  albumin  in  water  : 

Coagulation  by  heat.  Test  the  coagulum  with  nitric  acid 
and  ammonia.  Boil  a  little  of  the  albumin  in  nitric  acid,  cool 
and  add  slowly  ammonia. 

Determine  whether  proteids  occur  in  the  seeds  which  have 
been  studied,  or  in  other  seeds. 

Grind  up  as  finely  as  possible  in  a  coffee-mill  about  twenty- 
five  grams  of  dry  seeds.  Make  extracts  as  follows  : 

(1)  With  water  (100  cc.),  allowing  to  stand  for  twenty- 
four  hours.     Test  the  extract  obtained  with  the  above  tests, 
and  compare  the  results  with  those  obtained  above  with  egg- 
albumin.     Note  the  similarity  of  animal  and  plant  albumin. 

(2)  Taking  the  same  material,  extract  it  with  a   10  per  cent 
solution  of  common  salt.     A  second  proteid,  insoluble  in  pure 
water,  will  thus  be  thrown  down.     Obtain  this  in  dry  form  by 
dialysing  and  drying.     This  may  then  be  examined  and  tested  as 
above. 

(3)  A  third  proteid  may  be  obtained  from  wheat  by  taking 
the  flour,  making  a  dough,  and  then  washing  the  dough  in  a 
cloth  under  the  tap.     The  sticky  substance  —  gluten  —  is   a 
proteid  which  is  insoluble  in  water,  and  should  be  tested  with 
nitric  acid  and  ammonia. 

(4)  Does  gluten  occur  in  peas?     The  question  should  be 
answered  by  applying  the  method  in  (3).     It  is,  on  the  whole, 
preferable  for  this  series  of  experiments  to  be  done  by  the 
instructor. 

(b)  Starch. 


1  For  a  more  detailed  account  of  these  methods,  see  MacDougal's 
Text-Book  of  Plant  Physiology,  Chapter  IX. 


1 64  THE   TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

Demonstrate  the  color  reaction  (blue)  of  starch  with  iodine 
by  adding  the  latter  (a  very  weak  solution)  to  some  very  thin 
starch  paste. 

Examination  by  pupils  of  starch  grains  in  the  cells  of  the 
potato  tuber,  mounting  the  sections  in  very  weak  iodine  solu- 
tion. Let  one  or  two  cells  with  contained  starch  grains  be 
drawn.1 

Application  by  the  students  of  the  iodine  test  to  determine 
the  presence  or  absence  of  starch  in  the  seeds  studied. 

(c)  Sugar. 

Determine  the  color  reaction  of  Fehling's  solution  and 
grape  sugar,  or  glucose,  by  boiling  them  together  and  obtaining 
a  red  precipitate.  Ordinary  sugar  of  commerce  may  be  used, 
but  has  the  disadvantage  of  being  chiefly  cane  sugar,  which, 
however,  may  be  inverted  by  means  of  dilute  sulphuric  acid. 

Test  extracts  of  seeds  for  the  presence  of  sugar.  If  a  nega- 
tive result  is  obtained  with  Fehling's  solution,  add  a  little  acid 
to  a  small  volume  of  the  extract,  after  which  repeat  the  grape 
sugar  test, 

(d)  Cellulose  (reserve  cellulose).    It  should  be  pointed  out 
that  this  food  substance  doe's  not  occur  in  marked  quantities  in 
any  of  the  seeds  heretofore  studied.     In  this  instance  we  must 
resort  to  the  micro-chemical  test.     It  is  not  wholly  necessary 
to  introduce  cellulose,  but  is  worth  while  because  of  the  in- 
structive behavior  of  the  date  seedling. 

Demonstrate  the  hard  white  reserve  cellulose  as  it  occurs  in 
the  date  or  persimmon  seed. 

Using  a  well-soaked  seed,  make  a  thin  section  with  a  sharp 
knife,  place  the  section  on  a  piece  of  glass  in  small  drop  of 
chlor-zinc-iodine.  The  color  reaction  is  characteristic. 

(e)  Oils. 

Demonstrate  the  solubility  of  an  oil  (e.  g.,  cottonseed  or 
olive  oil)  in  ether.  Naphtha  or  benzine  may  be  used,  but  are 
not  so  volatile  and  therefore  rather  less  effective. 


1  To  make  good  preparations  of  potato,  cut  freehand  some  thinnish 
sections ;  rinse  well  in  water,  and  mount  in  iodine-eosin. 


DISCUSSION  OF   THE   COURSE  IN  BOTANY      165 

Grind  up  some  of  each  of  the  kinds  of  seeds  studied,  and 
extract  them  with  ether.  Place  the  extracts  in  glass  vessels, 
and  examine  after  the  ether  has  passed  off.  The  oil  is  easily 
recognized  as  such  by  its  behavior  on  paper,  or  on  a  glass 
surface  by  its  smear. 

Digestion. —  (i)  Demonstrate  insolubility  of  starch  in  cold 
water.1  Test  a  very  weak  starch  paste  for  grape  sugar.  Add 
a  little  diastase  in  solution  and  repeat  the  test  in  five  to  ten 
minutes. 

(2)  Demonstrate  the  indiffusibility  of  starch,  by  placing  a 
little  of  the  thin  paste  in  a  dialyser.     Test  the  inner  and  outer 
fluid  for  starch.     Add  a  little  diastase  to  the  starch  mixture, 
and  after  an  interval  test  the  outer  fluid  for  grape  sugar.     In 
making  these  grape-sugar  tests,  it  is  very  necessary  not  to  allow 
the  deep  color  of  the  Fehling  to  mask  the  precipitate  if  slight. 
Obviously,  the  instructor  must  learn  to  manipulate  his  opera- 
tions so  as  to  detect  small  quantities,  if  he  is  working  rapidly. 
It  is  well  worth  while  to  show  that  these  changes  are  rapid. 

(3)  The  fact  that  starch  occurs    in  minute  granules  may 
throw  open  to  some  doubt  its  inability  to  move  in  the  plant. 
In  the  absence  of  full  anatomical  demonstration  of  the  con- 
tinuity of  the  epidermis  enclosing  the  starch,  the  objection 
may  be   met    by  showing  that  cellulose,  also  a  food,  occurs 
in   the  form  of  a  continuous    mass.      In  this    way  the    date 
seed   is  especially  good  for  making  very  clear  the  necessity 
of  digestion.     These   seeds   will   germinate  and  produce,   in 
about  two  months,  good-sized  seedlings.     The  gradual  growth 
of  the  haustorium   (the  end  of  the  cotyledon)  and  surround- 
ing it,  the  zone  of  translucent  endosperm  where  the  action  of 
the  ferment   (cytase)  is  taking  place,  are  splendid  evidences. 
For  demonstration,  a  partly  germinated  cocoanut  is  very  useful 
on  account  of  the  fine,  large  haustorium. 

The  wide    significance  of  digestion   is    better  appreciated 


1  The  possible  slight  solubility  of  starch  is  a  negligible  matter,  as  will 
be  seen  by  testing  its  non-diffusibility. 


1 66  777^    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

when  some  knowledge  of  the  anatomical  structure  of  plants  is 
obtained  from  the  study  of  the  root  and  leaf.1 

Irritability.  —  That  plants  expend  energy,  and  that  food  is 
the  source  of  this  energy,  furnish  one  aspect  of  physiology  — 
the  causal.  That  the  structure  and  movements  resulting  from 
these  are,  on  the  whole,  those  which  enable  the  plant  to  cope 
with  the  conditions  in  which  it  finds  itself,  furnish  the  teleo- 
logical  aspect.  We  have  shown  elsewhere  that  there  is  a  good 
deal  of  danger  that  this  phase  of  botany  may  be  treated  in  an 
insufficient  or  even  thoroughly  unscientific  manner,  and  we 
have  tried  to  emphasize  the  principle  that  teleological  inter- 
pretations should  be,  as  far  as  possible,  tested. 

Adaptation  in  plants  is  possible  only  because  of  the  adaptive 
responses  of  plants  to  stimuli,  and  is  seen  most  clearly  when  the 
responses  of  a  given  organ  are  different  under  different  condi- 
tions. The  ability  of  a  plant  to  perceive  stimuli  and  to  respond 
to  them  is  called  irritability.  The  behavior  of  seedlings 
towards  various  environmental  factors  illustrates  this  quality,  and 
the  results  of  the  behavior  give  us  the  data  for  scientific  tele- 
ological interpretation.  Experiments  on  some  of  the  various 
tropisms  may  be  done  with  seedlings,  and  serve  well  for  the 
purpose  of  study  in  adaptive  response.  The  method  of  exper- 
iment need  not  here  be  given,  as  directions  will  be  found  in 
the  references  appended.  The  tropisms  which  may  be  studied 
are  the  following : 

Geotropism  of  roots  (primary  and  secondary),  of  the  shoot 
and  of  leaves.  (See  below  under  Etiolation.) 

Phototropism  of  root  and  shoot. 

Hydrotropism  of  roots. 

Chemotropism  of  roots.  Separate  a  battery  jar  into  two 
chambers  with  a  piece  of  tin,  with  a  good  number  of  holes 
punched  in  it.  Fill  one  chamber  with  finely  chopped  sphag- 
num well  washed  with  water  and  rinsed  with  distilled  water, 
and  the  other  with  sphagnum  well  dipped  in  nutrient  solution. 


1  The  subject  of  digestion  is  admirably  treated  in  Green's  Physiology 
of  Plants. 


DISCUSSION  OF   THE    COURSE  IN  BOTANY     167 

All  the  sphagnum  should  be  well  squeezed  out  so  that  there 
will  be  no  free  water.  Plant  seeds  upon  the  moss  near  the 
partition,  and  keep  covered.  When  the  roots  are  well  devel- 
oped note  their  distribution. 

It  is  highly  important  that  the  general  notion  that  the  sum 
total  of  reactions  such  as  these  are  expressed  in  the  form  of  the 
plant  as  a  whole.  This  point  is  generally  neglected  both  in 
the  books  and  by  the  teachers,  but,  after  all,  there  is  no  signifi- 
cance in  the  different  responses  of  the  different  organs  except 
when  these  are  viewed  as  parts  of  the  whole.  Thus  the  differ- 
ent kinds  and  degrees  of  geotropism  of  the  members  of 
the  root  system  account  largely  for  its  configuration  and 
for  the  advantageous  arrangement  of  its  elements.  When 
other  factors  are  unequally  distributed  in  the  substratum, 
advantageous  modifications  of  this  configuration  result. 
Further,  this  may  be  applied  to  the  parts  above  ground.  The 
axis  is  frequently  epigeotropic,  the  leaves  diageotropic.  This 
may  be  shown  clearly  by  growing  plants  in  the  dark.  The 
sweet  potato  is  very  good  for  this.  Any  change  in  the  position 
of  the  axis  results  in  a  rearrangement  of  the  leaf  blades  so  as 
to  keep  them  in  a  horizontal  plane.  After  bringing  the  plant 
into  a  condition  of  one-sided  illumination,  the  phototropic 
responses  mask  the  geotropic  response,  but  it  must  be  con- 
cluded that  the  positions  of  these  organs  is  the  resultant  of 
responses  to  two  stimuli  acting  in  different  directions.  Gen- 
eralizing, we  conclude  that  the  whole  organism  is  the  result  of 
responses  to  the  stimuli  of  all  environmental  factors  (both 
inner  and  outer)  applied  in  various  directions. 

Etiolation.  The  subject  of  etiolation  in  large  part  in  ele- 
mentary work  is,  like  that  of  irritability,  useful  in  directing  the 
attention  to  the  teleological  aspect  of  plant  physiology.  But 
it  is  very  useful  also  in  getting  a  point  of  view  for  the  later 
study  of  photosynthesis.  We  have  already  indicated  above 
the  value  of  studying  the  plant  in  the  dark  for  determining 
geotropic  responses.  Other  points  to  be  noticed  are  : 

(i)  The  relative    development  of  parts.     In  a  particular 


l68  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

plant,  what  parts  grow  more,  and  what  parts  less  than  they 
would  in  the  light.  In  some  cases  these  facts  may  be  inter- 
preted as  adaptive,  as,  for  example,  the  behavior  of  the  shoot 
of  a  seedling  which  is,  in  the  dark,  such  as  it  would  be  if 
making  its  way  through  the  soil,  where  it  is,  of  course,  also  in 
the  dark.1  The  frequent  persistence  of  Sachs'  curve,  or  its 
analogy  as,  e.  g.,  in  the  cotyledon  of  onion  illustrates  this. 

(2)  The  color  reactions.  Most  plants  fail  to  produce 
chlorophyll  in  the  dark.  The  exceptions  are  to  be  found 
chiefly  in  plants  attuned  to  weak  lights,  as  some  forest-floor 
plants,  viz. :  ferns.  Red  color  is  usually  produced,  e.  g.,  in 
the  beet,  which,  by  the  way,  is  a  most  beautiful  plant  for  these 
experiments.  The  important  relation  of  chlorophyll  to  light  is 
thereby  indicated.  What  this  relation  is  may  be  treated  in 
connection  with  the  study  of  the  leaf. 

The  outline  suggested  above  should  furnish  the  basis  for 
work  which  when  thoroughly  presented  may  serve  as  an  ade- 
quate introduction  to  botany.  It  should  be  well  understood 
by  the  teacher  that  the  bias  of  the  whole  course  will  be  deter- 
mined in  the  first  few  weeks,  and  it  is  therefore  necessary  that 
the  right  method  of  study  shall  be  closely  adhered  to,  even 
though  it  may  seem  that  the  pupils  work  rather  slowly.  Mak- 
ing haste  at  first  will  do  no  good  ;  if  the  student  learns  to  work 
properly  he  will  learn  to  work  rapidly. 

At  some  convenient  point,  either  in  connection  with  the 
study  of  each  type  of  fruit  and  seed,  or  after  the  completion  of 
the  work  up  to  this  time,  the  early  stage  of  germination  should 
be  studied  to  determine  in  addition  to  the  points  called  for 
under  "Ecology"  (p.  153),  the  fate  of  the  parts  of  the 
embryo.  For  this  purpose  it  is  advisable  to  have  in  addi- 
tion to  the  material  to  be  distributed,  a  lot  of  growing  plants 
in  pots  or  boxes,  for  observation  from  time  to  time  in  the  liv- 
ing condition.  This  could  well  be  made  a  part  of  the  home 


1  The  most  exhaustive  study  of  etiolation,  one  with  which  teachers 
should  be  acquainted,  is  by  MacDougal,  D.  T.  Memoirs  of  the  New 
York  Botanical  Garden,  Vol.  II.  19x53. 


DISCUSSION  OF   THE   COURSE.    IN  BOTANY      169 

work,  for  which  the  pupil  might  be  supplied  with  seeds  and 
be  held  accountable  for  their  growth  and  study.  The  follow- 
ing points  should  be  worked  out : 

(i)  What  is  the  mode  and  direction  of  growth  of  the 
various  parts  of  the  embryo  ?  What  are  their  ultimate  posi- 
tions? These  questions  may  be  answered  by  a  series  of 
sketches.  What  is  the  color  of  the  parts  underground  and 
of  those  exposed  to  light?  Keep  a  record  of  all  movements 
which  may  be  noted  in  any  parts. 

The  development  of  the  root  and  shoot  from  the  embryonic 
parts  opens  up  a  new  field  of  study  of  the  more  intimate 
details  of  the  organs  of  the  plant.  The  most  important 
general  fact  for  the  teacher  to  keep  in  mind  in  leading  the 
pupil  to  the  proper  interpretation  of  the  ecology  of  the  highly 
differentiated  plant  is  the  stratification,  so  to  speak,  of  the 
environments  into  two  parts,  with  opposite  characters  as  to 
the  water  content.  The  full  appreciation  of  this  will  give  the 
teacher  a  good  viewpoint,  and  will  give  the  chief  point  of  con- 
trast in  the  functions  of  root  and  shoot,  and  the  grasp  of  this 
by  students  is  a  good  thing  to  work  for. 

The  Root. 

It  is  convenient  and  logical  to  study  first  the  root  and  work 
upwards,  although,  of  course,  this  is  not  the  only  way.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  the  plant  as  a  whole  must  be  kept  in  mind  at 
all  times,  while  in  practice  we  have  to  study  it  in  some  orderly 
fashion. 

The  points  which  are  generally  understood  to  be  of  im- 
portance are  so  well  worked  out  in  the  text-books  that  we 
need  do  no  more  than  mention  them,  save  to  point  out  that 
in  the  study  of  the  root-cap  and  of  root-hairs  there  is  a  very 
good  opportunity  of  getting  a  knowledge  of  the  general  struc- 
ture of  the  cell.  For  this  purpose  I  know  no  better  material 
than  the  roots  of  the  Wandering  Jew  (Zebrina),  which  are 
readily  obtained  in  numbers  by  placing  short  cuttings  of 
the  plant  in  water,  most  conveniently  in  a  shallow  dish.  The 


I/O  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

outer  cells  of  the  root-cap  become  exfoliated  and  retain  their 
normal  appearance,  although  separated  from  the  plant.  In 
this  condition  they  show  most  beautifully  the  typical  plant-cell 
structure.  If  the  class  is  made  up  of  third  or  fourth  year 
students,  they  may,  with  profit,  study  the  behavior  of  the  cell 
during  plasmolysis,  for  which  good  directions  will  be  found  in 
Atkinson's  Elementary  Botany.  This  topic  is  of  fundamental 
importance  in  the  understanding  of  the  mechanical  signifi- 
cance of  turgor  in  the  plant,  and  well  repays  the  effort  spent 
upon  it,  if  the  student  is  sufficiently  advanced. 

The  outline  for  laboratory  work  should  embrace  the  follow- 
ing points : 

(i)  A  typical  root  system.  —  External  features.  Tap  root,1 
root  hairs,  root  cap.  For  the  root  cap,  the  roots  of  oats  or  of 
some  small  grass  are  very  good,  being  small  and  transparent. 
The  root  cap  in  Lemna  or  Spirodela  should  also  be  used,  and 
although  somewhat  unusual  in  their  general  character,  help 
very  materially  in  getting  a  good  notion  of  the  structure. 

Secondary  roots.  —  Their  position,  best  studied  by  means  of 
a  root  cage.  Note  how  curvature  in  the  tap-roots  affects  the 
distribution  of  secondary  roots,  and  the  ecological  significance 
of  this. 

Anatomy.  —  Plan  of  structure  of  a  tap-root  —  chosen  on 
account  of  its  convenience  as  to  size  —  including  cortex,  stele  : 
wood,  cambium,  and  bast.  Later,  when  studying  the  stem, 
attention  should  be  called  to  the  difference  in  the  mechanical 
relations  in  the  root  and  stem,  this  point  affording  a  good 
point  for  comparison. 

The  endogenous  origin,  and  the  arrangement  in  orthostichies 
of  new  roots.  The  former  can  be  made  out  by  careful  external 
examination,  especially  on  larger  roots.  Sections,  of  course, 
help  to  make  the  matter  clear  and  are  necessary  for  the  latter 
point,  and  these  are  easily  made  by  hand  through  the  first 
node  of  an  Indian  corn  seedling,  in  which  the  endogenous 


1  As  indicated,  potassium  permanganate  may  be  used  for  delimiting 
the  root  from  the  hypocotyl. 


DISCUSSION  OF   THE   COt/KSE  IN  BOTANY     \J\ 

origin  is  clearly  shown.  If  the  instructor  has  the  requisite 
skill,  hand  sections  of  the  tap  root,  which  are  necessary  to 
show  the  structural  relations,  may  be  made  after  it  has  been 
hardened  in  alcohol.  The  large  broad  bean  is  very  good  for 
this  purpose ;  the  pea,  although  small,  may  be  used.  Other- 
wise microtome  sections  may  be  resorted  to. 

In  working  on  the  anatomy  of  organs,  the  student  always 
finds  a  good  deal  of  difficulty  in  deciding  what  to  draw. 
Generally  he  will  start  to  put  in  a  lot  of  detail,  and,  rinding  it 
a  long  and  usually  useless  job,  he  will  make  a  lot  of  meaning- 
less little  circles  for  cell  walls.  It  is  much  better  for  him  to 
be  told  just  what  to  do,  namely,  to  make  out  the  groups  of 
tissues,  representing  these  by  a  diagram,  making  no  attempt 
at  finer  representation.  If,  however,  the  time  and  ability  of 
the  student  warrant  it,  a  careful  representation  of  a  few  cells 
for  each  kind  of  tissue,  as  seen  with  strong  magnification,  will 
be  best. 

There  is,  however,  a  difficulty  connected  with  the  study  of 
transverse  sections  with  which  the  student  meets  readily  over- 
looked by  the  teacher,  that,  namely,  of  getting  an  idea  of 
the  total  form  of  the  cell,  a  matter  of  great  importance  in 
understanding  the  movements  of  water  and  foods.  It  is  neces- 
sary to  study  longitudinal  views  before  this  can  be  done.  But 
it  is  not  difficult  to  get  these  in  a  small  root,  by  crushing  it 
slightly,  or  teasing  it.  If,  however,  for  lack  of  time,  this  point 
is  allowed  to  pass  with  a  word  of  explanation,  depending  on 
the  experimental  work  to  help  clear  the  matter  up,  the  whole 
subject  may  be  understood  later  when  the  structure  of  the 
stem  is  studied. 

The  root  hairs,  as  above  indicated,  may  be  studied  care- 
fully for  the  sake  of  getting  a  good  notion  of  the  protoplasm. 
It  is  important  for  the  purpose  that  the  roots  bearing  the  root 
hairs,  which  are  to  be  microscopically  examined,  should  be 
free  from  air,  and  the  best  way  to  do  this  is  to  grow  them  in 
water  as  above  indicated.  The  seeds  of  lettuce,  radish,  or 
any  quickly  germinating  seed  will  produce  great  numbers  of 


172  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

root  hairs  when  grown  on  moist  blotting  paper,  and  each 
student  may  easily  have  good  material  to  study. 

Physiology.  — The  function  of  water  absorption  by  the  roots  ; 
wilting  following  injury  or  drying  of  the  roots ;  bleeding  from 
a  stem  cut  near  the  soil ;  tracing  out  the  path  of  water  (and  of 
contained  materials)  in  the  root,  through  root  hair,  cortex,  and 
vascular  tissue.  Show  that  the  work  of  raising  water  in  a 
plant  may,  in  part  at  least,  be  accomplished  by  the  root  by 
osmotic  pressure  (root  pressure  experiment).1 

The  study  of  the  irritability  of  the  root  has  been  planned 
for  above. 

The  secretion  of  acid  by  roots.  A  very  simple  and  pretty 
demonstration  may  be  had  by  planting  some  Indian  corn 
grains  which  have  just  started  to  germinate  so  that  the  roots 
may  lie  in  contact  with  blue  litmus  paper.  This  may  be  done 
by  lining  a  plain  glass  tumbler  with  the  paper  and  filling  in 
with  moist  sawdust,  which,  of  course,  must  be  neutral.  Put  the 
corn  grains  near  the  top  between  the  glass  and  paper.  As 
the  roots  develop,  the  reaction  will  be  obtained. 

The  ecological  significance  of  the  secretion  of  acid  by  roots 
is  suggested  in  the  experiment  of  arranging  a  growing  seedling 
so  that  the  roots  may  etch  a  piece  of  polished  marble. 

What  materials  besides  water  are  absorbed  by  roots?  The 
answer  to  this  can  be  had  by  controlling  the  materials  supplied 
to  the  roots,  which  may  be  done  by  means  of  water  cultures. 
Elaborate  cultures  are  generally  difficult  to  carry  out,  and  of 
no  particular  profit  to  an  elementary  class,  since  the  whole 
problem  of  the  functions  of  mineral  salts  is  an  abstruse  one. 
The  point  of  chief  educational  weight  is  the  fact  that  such 
substances  as  starch,  sugars,  proteids  appear  in  the  plant,  but 
not  in  the  air  or  water  of  the  culture.  This  conclusion, 
together  with  the  physiological  work  on  the  seed,  prepares 
the  way  for  the  work  on  photosynthesis. 

Ecology.  —  i .   The  mechanical  role  of  roots  :  The  ramifying 


1  For  which  the  rubber-plant  is  very  good. 


DISCUSSION  OF  THE   COURSE  IN  BOTANY     173 

root    system ;  guy  roots  in  corn.     Organs  of  attachment  in 
climbing  plants :  English  ivy,  trumpet  creeper,  poison  ivy. 

2.  The  modifications  in  the  shapes  of  roots  resulting  from 
the  storage  of  food  materials.     It  must  be  remembered  that 
in  many  cases,  e.  g.,  radish,  the  hypocotyl  takes  part  in  the 
storage    and  therefore   constitutes   part   of  the   enlargement. 
The   result   of  artificial   selection   in   producing  useful  food 
plants. 

3.  Haustorial  roots  of  parasitic  plants,  e.  g.,  Cuscuta.     Hand 
sections  of  alcohol-hardened   material  may  easily  be   made. 
It  is  not  difficult,  also,  to   raise  Cuscuta   from  seed  and   the 
very    interesting    habits    of  the    seedlings    may    be    watched. 
Coleus  or  Balsam  make  good  host  plants. 

4.  Symbiosis  in  roots.     Mycorrhiza,  the  association  of  roots 
and  fungi,  e.  g.,  Indian  pipe  {Monotropa) ,  hemlock,  and  many 
others :  root  tubercles  in  leguminous  plants  caused  by  nitrify- 
ing bacteria,  and  their  very  great  ecological  significance. 

5.  Air  roots  are  most  interesting  if  material  may  be  had. 
The  rapid  absorption  of  water  by  the  air    roots    of   orchids 
through    the    specialized    epidermal   tissue,   the    velamen.     If 
there  is  a  green-house  at  hand,  a  trip  is  well  worth  while  for 
the  purpose  of  seeing  these  roots,  and  also  the 

6.  Respiratory  roots  of  many  plants,  e.  g.,  some  palms,  etc. 
Reference  may  also  be  made  to  the  respiratory  roots  of  swamp 
plants  such  as  the  mangrove,  Avicennia,  which  grows  in  the 
tropics.     Illustrations  may  be  found  in  many  books.     Cypress 
"  knees,"  "  swell-butt  "  black  gum  ;  arched  roots.1 

7.  Vegetative  reproduction  in  roots  as,  e.  g.,  in  sweet  pota- 
toes, the  suckers  of  many  trees  and  shrubs. 

Field  work  on  underground  roots  is,  on  the  whole,  rather 
less  satisfactory  than  any  other  subject,  although  of  itself  of 
very  great  interest. 

i.  The  clinging  organs  of  climbing  plants  should  be  ex- 
amined, and  their  position  and  origin  determined,  to  decide 


1  Kearney,  T.  H.,  Contr.  U.  S.  Nat.  Herb.  5  :  No.  6,  1901. 


1/4  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

whether  they  are  roots  or  not.1  In  what  parts  of  plants  are 
adventitious  roots  most  commonly  produced?  Plant  cuttings 
of  various  kinds,  and  study  the  roots  as  they  appear,  noting 
position. 

2.  Compare  the  roots   of   several  land  and  water  plants. 
Correlate    facts    observed  with   water    as   an    environmental 
factor.     Plant  various  seeds  with  the  roots  submerged  and  in 
moist  air,  and  note  development  of  root  hairs. 

3.  Note  the  spongy  texture  of  many  submerged  roots,  due 
to  the  development  of  aerenchyma  (respiratory  tissue).      (Sub- 
merge willow  twigs  —  aerenchyma  from  lenticels.) 

4.  If  the  opportunity  is  favorable,  without    the  danger  of 
doing  harm  to  wild  flowers,  it  is  a  profitable  exercise  to  de- 
termine the  extent  and  distribution  of  roots  of  some  plants. 
Weeds,  of  course,  may  be  sacrificed  ad  libitum. 

The  Shoot. 

The  shoot  consists  of  an  axis  (the  stem),  which,  itself  a 
complex  of  organs,  produces  lateral  organs.  These  are  (a) 
axes  of  higher  orders,  and  (b)  leaves  of  different  kinds,  of 
which  the  foliage  leaves  are  the  typical  photosynthetic  organs, 
and,  while  by  no  means  exclusively  so,  are  from  the  point  of 
view  of  nutrition  of  chief  importance. 

Recall  the  plumule  (the  primary  chief-shoot)  of  which  the 
pupil  should  get  a  clear  idea.  Dissect  a  large  bud,  marking 
out  the  axis  and  the  lateral  organs  of  various  shapes.  It  is 
well  worth  while  to  demonstrate  longitudinal  sections 2  through 
a  shoot  tip  to  show  the  young  lateral  organs,  the  origin  of 
which  is  superficial.  Compare  with  roots  in  this  regard. 


1  Teachers  should,  of  course,  be  watchful,  on  account  of  the  danger 
of  poisoning  from  the  poison  ivy.  Robison  (Field  Studies,  p.  22)  sug- 
gests that  the  stems  and  leaves  should  be  enclosed  in  glass,  and  thus 
studied  without  the  necessity  of  touching.  This  should  be  done  before- 
hand, and  particular  attention  should  be  directed  to  the  similarity  and 
differences  of  the  Virginia  creeper  and  poison  ivy. 

a  Good  free-hand  preparations  of  Elodea  stem  tips  will  serve  also. 


DISCUSSION  OF   THE   COURSE  IN  BOTANY      175 

External  Anatomy  and  Morphology.  —  The  scars  of  scale 
and  foliage  leaves  on  twigs  ;  annual  growth  increments.  The 
relative  position  of  buds  and  leaves  as  indicated  by  the  leaf 
scars. 

The  relative  position  of  leaves  —  z.  e.,  their  phyllotactic 
relations  —  in,  e.g.,  maple  (or  ash  or  horse  chestnut),  in 
oak,  hickory  (2/s)>  and  in  ailanthus  (3/s).  Relative  positions 
of  branches ;  the  growth  or  suppression  of  the  chief  bud,  and 
production  of  monopodial  or  sympodial  type  of  tree. 

The  age  of  a  twig  as  indicated  by  the  "  rings"  formed  by 
the  closely  packed  scale-leaf  scars  of  terminal  or  chief  buds. 

The  inflorescence  as  a  branching  system  of  shoots.  I  have 
found  that  a  good  dynamic  view  of  this  usually  dry  and  ter- 
minological part  of  botany  may  be  gained  by  studying  in  this 
connection  two  or  three  types,  avoiding,  however,  those  (e.  g., 
Datura}  which  show  displacement,  and  so  become  too  diffi- 
cult for  elementary  work. 

For  this  purpose  a  raceme  (Capsella)  an  umbel  (wild 
carrot),  and  a  cyme  (chickweed).  A  good  brief  treatment 
of  this  subject  will  be  found  in  Bergen's  Foundations  of 
Botany,  p.  186.  The  teacher  should  emphasize  the  phyloge- 
netic  aspect  of  this  topic,  showing  how  one  type  of  inflores- 
cence may  be  derived  from  another  by  the  different  relative 
development  of  parts. 

Other  superficial  characters  of  twigs  —  especially  the  lenti- 
cels.  Study  portions  of  the  stem  of  various  ages,  and  note  the 
splitting  of  the  epidermis.  At  what  points  does  it  begin? 
How  long  does  the  epidermis  remain  intact?  What  is  the 
ultimate  result?  (The  epidermis  will  be  found  to  split  at 
different  ages  in  different  trees.  The  splitting  is  the  beginning 
of  the  exfoliation  of  the  epidermis,  which  ends  in  laying  bare  the 
cortical  tissues.  The  bark  is  therefore  made  up  of  originally 
internal  tissues  which,  secondarily,  become  protective,  being 
highly  resistant  to  the  entrance  of  parasitic  plants.)  Can  any 
evidence  of  activity  be  discovered  in  the  epidermis  and  bark  of 
trees?  (In  spring  and  early  summer  new  exposure  of  bark  can 


176  THE   TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

be  seen  in  the  bottom  of  rifts.  Constant  falling  of  bark  scales, 
etc.)  Poplar  is  especially  good  for  this  topic,  which  is  well 
adapted  for  field  work. 

Internal  Structttre.  —  For  getting  a  clear  idea  of  the  primary 
structure  of  the  dicotyledonous  stem,  the  twigs  used  above  are 
not  good  for  beginners.  The  stem  of  Clematis  is  excellent. 
The  stem  of  the  Dutchman's  pipe  (Aristolochia)  is  most  fre- 
quently used,  since  it  is  easily  obtained  and  shows  very  dis- 
tinctly the  following  structures  :  In  a  transverse  section  of  a 
growing  internode,  the  epidermis,  cortex,  central  cylinder : 
vascular  tissue  (phloem,  xylem),  cambium,  medulla,  and  medul- 
lary rays.  In  a  three  or  four  year  old  internode,  make  out 
the  following  secondary  changes.  Exfoliation  of  the  epider- 
mis (of  which  the  expanding  radish  hypocotyl  offers  a  good 
illustration),  formation  of  bark  (correlate  with  work  on  lenticels), 
splitting  of  the  cylinder  of  mechanical  tissue  (commonly,  but 
unfortunately  called  "hard  bast");  annual  increments  of 
phloem  and  xylem,  persistence  of  cambium  cylinder.1  The 
pupils'  attention  should  be  directed  to  the  observation  of  the 
relative  thickness  of  the  cell  walls  in  the  xylem,  mechanical 
cylinder,  and  epidermis  as  compared  with  the  remainder  of  the 
cells  of  the  stem. 

Peel  off  the  epidermis  or  bark  from  any  young  stems,  and 
note  the  green  tissue  beneath.  This  point  is  to  be  referred  to 
during  the  study  of  photosynthesis  in  the  leaf.  For  the  study 
of  the  monocotyledonous  stem,  corn  is,  of  course,  good,  the 
chief  points  of  contrast  with  the  dicotyledonous  stem  being  the 
absence  of  a  continuous  cambium  and  scattered  bundles. 

Annual  increments  of  growth  in  trees.  Pupils  should  verify 
their  conclusion  as  to  the  ages  of  twigs  determined  by  observa- 
tion of  scale  scars  by  counting  the  annual  growths  of  wood. 
Method  of  determining  the  age  of  trees,  and  possible  sources 


1  It  is  very  easy  for  the  pupil  to  get  a  false  impression  by  talking 
about  the  cambium  "  ring,"  without  understanding  the  conditions  aright. 
The  cylinder,  of  course,  appears  as  a  ring  in  a  transverse  section,  but  the 
appearance  should  be  properly  interpreted  from  the  first. 


DISCUSSION  OF  THE   COURSE  IN  BOTANY     1 77 

of  error.  Age  of  a  tree  =  age  of  the  sapling  of  the  height 
of  stump,  plus  number  of  wood  layers  ("  rings  "),  allowing  for 
possible  reduplication  of  growth  within  a  year. 

Physiology.  —  i.  Growth.  Determine,  by  the  marking 
method,  where  the  regions  of  maximum  elongation  are  in  a 
dicotyledonous  and  in  a  monocotyledonous  stem.  Correlate 
the  mechanical  adaption  of  the  cylindrical  leaf  base  in 
grasses,  etc.,  with  the  growth  of  the  axis. 

2.  Movement.     Circumnutation,  especially  marked  in  vines, 
accompanied  by  torsions.     A  very  simple  and  instructive  ex- 
periment may  be  done  by  wrapping  a  thick  solder  wire  about 
a   round   stick  spirally,  after  first  making  a  row  of  ink  dots 
along  one  side  of  the  wire. 

3.  Bending     movements     (geotropic).      Where    do     such 
movements  take  place,  and   how  far  do  these  coincide  with 
regions  of  maximum  growth?     Determine  by  marking  method. 
That  such  movements  are  responses  to  the  stimulus  of  gravity 
can   be   shown   by  means   of  a   simple  clinostat   experiment. 
Young  radish  hypocotyl  is  good  for  this  experiment. 

4.  Lenticels    as    organs   for    aeration   of   the   stem.     Place 
twigs  in  water  in  a  moist  chamber,  and  watch  for  the  signs  of 
growth  in  the  lenticels.     Arrange  a  twig  so  that  the  cut  end 
shall  project  beyond  the  upper  end  of  a  cork,  the  upper  end 
being  plunged  into  water  in  a  bottle.     Bore  another  hole  for  a 
bent  tube,  through  which  the  air  in  the   bottle   may  be   ex- 
hausted  by  means  of  an   aspirator   or   air-pump.     The   cork 
should,  of  course,  be  tight.     The  air  will  escape  through  the 
lenticels. 

5.  Mechanics  of  the  stem  (a)  maintenance  of  rigidity  by 
means  of  turgor.     Tissue  tension,  and  effects  of  plasmolysis  en 
herbaceous  stems  (rhubarb  petioles  illustrate  this  well,  though 
of  course  they  are  not  stems).     Wilting  in  plants  (see  Atkin- 
son's Lessons  in  Botany,  and  First  Studies  in  Plant  Life  for  a 
very  good  treatment  of  this  topic). 

(b)  Rigidity  attained  by  means  of  thickened  cell  walls. 
Compare  the  rigidity  of  two  fresh  stems,  herbaceous  and 


178  THE   TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

woody,  of  similar  dimensions,  by  the  support  of  weights  while 
in  a  horizontal  position.  Allow  them  to  dry,  and  note  results. 
Turgidity  in  young  tissues,  which  later  become  woody,  indi- 
cating the  limit  of  adaptive  value  of  turgor  in  a  mechanical  way. 
The  study  of  this  topic  may,  of  course,  be  extended  to  other 
parts  —  especially  leaves,  which  offer  many  beautiful  examples 
of  adaptation.  The  full  appreciation  of  the  mechanical  value 
of  turgor  in  cells  in  giving  rigidity  to  the  plant  body  can  be 
had  only  when  such  work  is  done  as  is  suggested  by  Atkinson 
{Elementary  Botany,  pp.  13-21).  When  this  is  not  possible, 
it  is  still  worth  while  to  do  the  work  outlined  above. 

6.  The  function  of  the  stem  in  transporting  water.     Place 
some  translucent  plant  (e.g.,  balsam)  in  eosin  water  (red  ink), 
and  determine  the  course  of  water  throughout  the  entire  plant. 
As  far  as  possible  this  experiment  should  be  done  also  quanti- 
tatively ;    i.  ^.,   the    rate  of  the    ascent    of  water    should    be 
made  out. 

7.  Transpiration  experiments  may  be  introduced  here,  or  in 
connection  with  the  leaf.     There  are  three  available  methods 
of  determining  the  loss  of  water,  (a)  by  watching  a  moving 
bubble,  (b)   by  the  use  of  cobalt  chlorid,  and   (c)  by  weigh- 
ing.    The  first  of  these  is  the  most  difficult  to  set  up,  but  is 
very  instructive.1 

The  cobalt  chlorid  method  requires  care,  but  is  not  diffi- 
cult. Filter  paper,  wet  with  a  ten  per  cent  solution  of  cobalt 
chlorid,  and  thoroughly  dried,  must  be  closely  applied  to  a 
leaf  surface,  and  protected  from  the  action  of  the  air  by  a  bit 
of  glass.  The  reddening  2  will  go  on  more  or  less  rapidly, 
according  to  the  amount  of  transpiration.  The  transpiratory 
activity  of  surfaces  of  the  same  leaf  and  different  leaves  may 
thus  be  compared  within  a  brief  space  of  time  ;  and  the  results 
make  a  very  vivid  impression  on  the  mind.8  Atkinson  {First 


1  MacDougal,  Text-Book  of  Plant  Physiology,  p.  210. 

2  Cobalt  paper  is  blue  when  dry,  but  reddens  on  access  of  the  slightest 
trace  of  moisture. 

3  Lloyd,  F.  E.,  Botany  in  the  Horace  Mann  School. 


DISCUSSfON  OF  THE   COURSE  IN  BOTANY      179 

Studies,  p.  97)  has  planned  another  form  of  this  experiment, 
which  serves  for  demonstration  before  a  class  as  a  whole. 
There  is  an  advantage  in  each  member  of  a  class  doing  the 
experiment  for  himself,  and  it  is  so  easy  to  do,  in  spite  of 
impressions  to  the  contrary,  that  it  is  a  pity  not  to  do  it.  The 
leaves  of  Zebrina  serve  very  well  for  the  purpose.  They  are 
easy  to  obtain  and  keep  well,  after  being  removed  from  the 
plant,  for  a  long  enough  time  at  least  for  distribution  to  a 
class,  and  for  experimentation. 

The  method  of  weighing  is  the  commonly  used  experiment, 
and  is  a  thoroughly  good  one.  It  should  be  carried  through 
several  days,  and  the  amount  of  water  lost  each  twenty-four 
hours  placed  in  a  vial  for  comparison,  and  for  the  purpose  of 
making  the  results  vivid.  Thus  if  a  plant  in  transpiring  loses 
twenty-four  grams,  twenty-four  cc.  of  water  should  be  meas- 
ured out.  The  method  of  determining  transpiration  by  means 
of  a  hygrometer  may  also  be  used.  For  a  simple  form,  see 
MacDougal's  Elementary  Plant  Physiology,  p.  74. 

Ecology.  —  i .  The  part  that  phyllotaxy,  apart  from  other 
factors,  plays  in  bringing  about  the  light  adjustments  of  leaves. 
Study  cases  of  marked  dorsiventrality, — e.g..  Beech,  etc., — 
and  decide  whether  the  phyllotaxy  is  in  itself  expressive  of 
dorsiventrality  ;  and  find  instances  of  dorsiventrality  produced 
in  spite  of  radial  symmetry  in  the  axis  itself.  In  such,  what 
other  factors  bring  this  about  ? 

2.  Where  on  the  twigs  of  various  trees  do  the  biggest  buds 
occur?    Determine  the  cause  of  this,  so  far  as  may  be  possible, 
by  noticing  the    environmental    relations    of    a    given    twig. 
What    are    the    ecological    results?      Where    are    the    twigs 
most   numerous?   and    the  leaves?      Is    there    an   advantage 
to  the  plant   in  this?      What  do  we  learn  about  the  art  of 
pruning  fruit  trees  and  shrubs?    Analyze  the  "  habit  "  of  trees, 
referring  it  to  the   different  types  of  development  as  far  as 
possible. 

3.  Chief  shoots  are  sometimes  replaced  by  lateral  shoots. 
Is  this  due  sometimes  to  accident  ?     (  Conifera.}  Recall  experi- 


180  THE   TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

ment  of  excising  the  plumule   in    the  pea.     Does    this    take 
place  regularly  in  some  trees?      (Sassafras,  sympodium.) 

4.  Examine  vines  and  shrubs,  with  the  view  of  determining 
(i)  whether  any  torsions  occur  in  the  stems  and  (2)  whether 
there  has  been  any  ecological  significance  in  bringing  about 
light  adjustments  in  the  leaves. 

5.  Study  the  stems   and  other   supporting  parts,   such  as 
petioles,  etc.,  with  reference  to  the  various  arrangements  of 
mechanical  tissues.     Annuals,  biennials,   and  vines  afford  the 
greatest  variety   of  instructive   examples.     A   hand-lens  may 
be  sometimes  necessary.     Diagrams  should  be  made.      (See 
Kerner-Oliver's  Natural  History  of  Plants.) 

6.  Stems  which  are  modified  by  the  storage  (a)  of  water,  as 
adaptations  to  xerophytic   conditions,  e.  g.,  cacti,  Salic  or nia, 
etc.  ;x    (b)  of  foods,  as  adaptions  for  vegetative  reproduction, 
e.g.,  potato  tuber,  Ariscema  (or  crocus)  corm,  etc.' 

7.  Stems  as  climbing  organs  (tendril  stems)  as  in  Ampelopsis. 

8.  Vegetative  reproduction  :    (a)  by  separation  of  twigs  in 
crack- willows ;    (b)   by  runners  and  the  like,  e.g.,  strawberry, 
blackberry,  etc. ;    (c)  by  suckers  (stems  produced  from  roots). 
The  condition  of  a  neglected  orchard. 

These  topics  on  the  ecology  of  the  stem  are  especially 
appropriate  for  field  work,  and  should  be,  as  far  as  possible, 
carried  out  in  this  way.  While  given  here  as  work  strictly  on 
the  stem,  it  cannot  be  separated  wholly  from  the  study  of  leaf 
ecology,  and  indeed  should  not  be.  This  applies  especially  to 
topics  i,  4,  and  5.  Further  suggestions  will  be  found  in 
Robison's  Outlines  for  Field  Studies,  pp.  17-31. 

If  circumstances  allow,  the  elements  of  the  theory  and 
practice  of  grafting  should  be  taken  up.  A  very  thorough 
account  may  be  found  in  Sorauer- Weiss,  Physiology  of  Plants, 
and  in  Bailey,  L.  H.,  The  Grafting  Book,  also  Cyclopedia 
of  Horticulture. 


1  MacDougal,  D.  T.,  Some  Aspects  of  Desert  Vegetation,  Plant 
World,  6:249-257,  Illus.  November,  1903.  Bulletin ,  No.  19,  The  Car- 
negie Institution. 


DISCUSSION  OF   THE   COURSE  IN  BOTANY     l8l 

The  Leaf. 

External  features  of  a  foliage  leaf.  —  Form  and  venation  of 
a  monocotyledonous  and  dicotyledonous  type.  The  structure 
of  the  epidermis  and  of  stomata  and  the  distributions  of  the 
latter.  (Correlate  with  transpiration,  using  cobalt  chlorid 
method.) 

Internal  structure.  The  epidermis  and  mesophyll ;  palisade 
and  spongy  chlorenchyma. 

The  lesson  on  the  structure  of  the  leaf  offers,  in  this  part  of 
the  course,  as  Ganong  has  pointed  out,  a  very  good  oppor- 
tunity for  training  in  anatomy,  and  for  material  the  leaf  of  the 
rubber  plant  is  very  satisfactory  because  of  ease  of  cutting 
sections  by  hand.  A  half-dozen  narrow  strips  taken  parallel  to 
the  secondary  veins  may  be  held  together,  and  sections  made 
very  rapidly.  The  epidermis  is,  however,  compound,  and  the 
stomata  rather  highly  specialized.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  how- 
ever, it  is  rather  too  difficult  a  task  for  high  school  pupils 
to  make  out  the  structure  of  a  stoma  in  transverse  sections, 
although  a  good  student  will  often  succeed  in  this.  The  class 
may  then  be  allowed  to  examine  the  successful  preparation. 
The  pupil  should,  however,  make  out  the  intercellular  spaces 
and  the  form  of  the  chlorenchyma  cells,  and  correlate  these 
facts  with  the  positions  of  the  leaf,  the  insolation  and  the  dis- 
tribution of  stomata.  The  thick  cuticle  should  be  understood 
as  a  protective  arrangement  to  prevent  undue  loss  of  water. 
This  may  be  demonstrated  by  slicing  off  a  bit  of  the  cuticle 
from  a  rubber  plant  leaf  with  a  sharp  scalpel,  and  noting  the 
results.  The  morphology  of  the  leaf  parts  is  best  studied  in 
developing  buds  of  various  kinds,  in  which  different  parts  serve 
as  protective  coverings  in  the  winter  bud. 

Physiology.  —  i .  The  path  of  water  in  the  leaf  blade,  traced 
by  means  of  eosin  (see  above  under  "  Stem  "). 

2.  Determine,  by  marking  with  indelible  ink,  the  regions  of 
growth  in  a  monocotyledonous  (e.  g.  onion,)  and  dicotyledon- 
ous leaf.     Correlate  with  form  of  venation. 

3.  Determine  the  responses  of  leaves  to  gravitation.     Sweet 


1 82  THE    TEACHING    OF  BOTANY 

potato  vines  are  very  good,  and  when  excluded   from   light 
show  very  regular  diageotropic  responses. 

4.  Transpiration   (see  above,  on  p.  178,  the  cobalt  chlorid 
test). 

5.  Photosynthesis.      Show    (a)    that    green   leaves    fail    to 
form  starch  in   the  dark ;    (b)   that   the  non-green   parts   of 
leaves  (geranium  "  Bijou,"  coleus,  white-striped  grass  or  white- 
striped    wandering    jew,    not,    of  course,    the    silvery-striped 
variety)   do   not  form  starch  in  the  light,  and    (c)    that   the 
green  parts  of  leaves   do.     To  apply  the   iodine   test    most 
successfully  use  a  chloral-hydrate-iodine  solution  upon  leaves 
from  which   the  chlorophyll  has    been   removed    by  alcohol. 
Leaves  may,  after  treatment,  be  rinsed,  stretched  upon  glass 
and  dried,  when  by  transmitted  light  a  beautiful  result  will  be 
seen.     Such  preparations  will  keep  for  a  long  time,  so  that 
they  may  be  used  repeatedly  if  the  teacher  has  to  have  them 
for  numerous  and  large  classes. 

That  photosynthesis  demands  CO2  (carbon  dioxid)  may  be 
easily  shown  by  taking  a  cutting  of  geranium,  which  has  been 
in  the  dark  twenty-four  hours,  and,  after  enclosing  it  in  a 
bottle  provided  with  a  CO2  absorber,  exposing  it  to  light. 
(See  Ganong,  Plant  Physiology,  p.  89.) 

6.  Respiration.     What  is  the  behavior  of  the  leaf  toward 
the  air  when  in  the  dark?     Answered  in  part  by  testing  (with 
barium  hydrate  solution)  the  air  surrounding  leaves  placed  in 
a  bottle  kept  in  the  dark,  for  excreted  CO2. 

7.  Excretion  of  water  by  leaves.     Atkinson  (First  Studies 
in   Plant  Life,    p.    103)    describes   a  good   arrangement   for 
experimenting  on  this  point. 

8.  Secretion  of  nectar   by  extrafloral  nectaries   found   on 
leaves,  e.g.,  cherry,  brake   (seen  well  when  the  "crosiers"  are 
unfolding),1  elder,  castor-oil  plant.    Set  up  an  artificial  nectary 
with  a  carrot,  potato,  or  any  such  fleshy  part.2     Try  to  make 


1  Lloyd,    F.    E.,   Extra-Nuptial    Nectaries   in    the    Common    Brake, 
Pteridium  Aquilinum.     Science,  II.,  13:885-890.     June  7,   1901. 
3  MacDougal's  Elementary  Plant  Physiology,  p.  50. 


DISCUSSION  OF   THE   COURSE   IN  BOTANY      183 

an  artificial  nectary  on  a  large  petiole,  by  scraping  the  cuticle 
and  putting  a  few  grains  of  sugar  on  the  surface. 

Ecology.  —  i.  The  distribution  of  mechanical  tissues  and 
their  relation  to  the  support  of  the  leaf  blade.  Bulrush 
(Typha},  etc.,  pine,  corn  (relation  to  stem).  Experimental 
test  by  cutting  the  prominent  veins. 

2.  Leaf  surfaces  :  waxy  or  hairy  coverings  and  the  like. 

3.  The    forms   of  leaves.       Degrees    of    dorsiventrality    in 
branches  and  the  part  played  by  the  form  of  the  leaf  in  bring- 
ing about    the   result   (correlate  with  phyllotaxy).     Torsions 
in    petioles.     Leaf  mosaic :    relative   size   and   length   of  leaf 
blades  and  petioles.     The  mosaics  formed  in  compound  leaves 
by  the  pinnae,  stipels,  stipules,  etc. 

4.  Leaf  movements.     How  far  are  the  positions  in  which 
leaves  are  found  due  to  movement  of  the  leaves  themselves 
out  of   the   position  assumed  when   deprived   of   light?      In 
what  part  of  the  leaf  does  such  movement  take  place?     Can 
any    special    organs   be   found   which    accomplish  the   move- 
ments?     Are    there    any    periodic    movements    of    leaves? 
Test  the  "  sleep "  notion,  by  seeing  if  the  so-called  "  sleep- 
movements  "  may  be  induced  in  any  other  way,  as  e.g.,  by 
temperature  changes.     (Some  further  good  points  for  experi- 
mentation may  be  found  in  Atkinson's  First  Studies  in  Plant 
Life,  Chapter  XX.) 

5.  Find  instances  of  nectar-secreting  organs    on  stems  or 
leaves.     Do  these  attract  insects  ?     Can  any  evidence  be  found 
that  the  insects  are  of  any  benefit  to  the  plant? 

6.  Study   instances    of   vegetative    reproduction    from    the 
leaf;  e.g.,  walking  fern,  bryophyllum,  begonia,  peperomia,  etc. 
If  there  is  a  greenhouse  available,  there  is  usually  opportunity 
for  seeing  propagation  by  leaf  cuttings. 

7.  High  specialization  in  leaves,      (a)  For  climbing,  as  ten- 
dril leaves,  e.g.,  pea.      (b)    Pitcher  leaves    (Sarracenia) y  and 
other  forms  of  insect  traps  (Drosera,  Utricularia,  Frullania). 

8.  The  preparation  of  trees  and  shrubs  for  winter  by  shed- 
ding leaves,  caused  by  cellular  activity,  for  which  any  material 


1 84  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

with  a  large  leaf  base  is  good.     Note  the  condition  of  the  leaf 
scar,  when  the  leaf  falls ;  is  it  an  open  wound,  or  protected  ? 


The  Bud. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary,  perhaps,  to  treat  this  topic  separ- 
ately, except  to  indicate  how  it  may  be  treated  as  a  whole. 
All  that  naturally  falls  to  high-school  work  in  this  subject  has 
been  already  suggested  above ;  much  that  is  actually  done  in 
such  schools  is  much  more  appropriate  to  the  grades,  such, 
for  instance,  as  the  recognition  of  different  kinds  of  winter 
buds,  and  the  gross  features  of  their  early  development.  Buds 
are,  of  course,  the  young  ends  of  shoots,  which  may  or  may 
not  enter  into  a  resting  condition,  according'  to  circumstances. 
The  upper  end  of  the  primary  shoot  above  the  cotyledons, 
called  technically  the  plumule,  is  a  bud,  and  it  is  perhaps 
better  to  call  it  so  in  the  early  work  on  the  embryo  rather 
than  to  use  the  term  plumule.  This  fact  suggests  a  line  of 
thought  regarding  the  behavior  of  the  bud  somewhat  as  follows. 
In  herbaceous  annual  plants,  does  the  bud  develop  continually? 
In  some  examples  (pea,  rubber  plant,  geranium,  fuchsia,  etc.) 
what  is  the  disposition  of  the  leaf  parts  in  the  bud  ?  What 
leaf  parts  chiefly  enclose  the  bud?  Is  their  position  favorable 
to  the  protection  of  the  inner  structures,  and  are  these  latter 
of  such  texture  as  to  need  protection  ?  What  kind  of  protec- 
tion? In  plants  subjected  to  the  rigors  of  unfavorable  cli- 
mate the  buds  enter  upon  prolonged  resting  periods.  When 
resting  buds  are  formed,  what  are  the  more  obvious  changes 
which  take  place  in  the  component  parts?  Are  these  related 
to  water,  temperature  changes,  or  mechanical  dangers?  At 
what  time  are  winter  buds  formed  in  various  plants?  Do  all 
the  shoots  of  the  same  plant  (e.g.,  Ampelopsis,  blackberry) 
form  winter  buds?  Trace  out  the  homologies  in  the  leaves  of 
expanding  winter  buds.  The  resting  buds  (hibernacula)  of 
water  plants,  e.g.,  Utricularia  Elodea.  Buds  which  serve  in  a 
special  manner  for  vegetative  reproduction  (onion,  bulbils  of 


DISCUSSION  OF   THE    COURSE  IN  BOTANY    185 

various  plants),  and  cultural  bud  modifications,  which  serve 
as  food  (Brussel  sprouts,  cabbage).  The  use  of  buds  in 
grafting. 

Determine  whether  food  materials  are  present  in  buds  and 
adjacent  portions  of  the  stem.1  (Horse-chestnut.) 

The  experimental  proof  of  the  value  of  winter  buds  would 
be  a  subject  of  interest.  To  do  this  remove  the  bud  scales, 
and  see  whether  the  young  parts  can  withstand  the  exposure, 
apart  from  temperature  changes  (<?.£".,  drying  action).  Remove 
the  scales  from  frozen  buds  and  bring  treated  and  untreated 
buds  indoors  and  subject  to  rapid  thawing.  Most  of  this  study 
is  adaptable  to  field  work,  and  should,  if  possible,  be  made  so. 

The  flower  is  not  treated  here. 

The  course  up  to  this  point  may  properly  be  regarded  as 
introductory  in  the  sense  that,  in  addition  to  training  in  the 
scientific  method  as  applied  in  botany,  it  brings  to  the  atten- 
tion of  the  student  the  chief  ideas  of  morphology  and  the 
principles  of  physiology,  involving  the  notion  of  adaptive 
response.  At  the  outset  of  such  a  course,  which  will  occupy 
a  half-year's  work,  the  teacher  should  have  the  whole  matter 
in  his  mind ;  it  should,  as  it  were,  stand  out  as  a  picture,  so 
that  so  far  as  possible  the  bearings  of  one  part  on  another  are 
clearly  apprehended.  To  this  end,  it  is  well  to  examine  criti- 
cally the  treatment  found  in  various  elementary  text-books. 
This  should  be  done  to  determine,  for  example,  what  the 
morphological  content  is,  and  how  it  is  brought  into  relation 
with  the  rest  of  the  work. 

When  the  student  has  fairly  appreciated  this  body  of  knowl- 
edge, he  is  in  some  degree  prepared  to  pass  on  to  do  the  work 
in  types  —  to  get  some  idea  of  a  series  of  forms,  which  repre- 
sent the  evolution  of  the  vegetative  body  and  of  the  methods 
of  reproduction.  The  second  half  of  the  school  year  is  better 
adapted  to  this  part  of  the  work  on  account  of  the  greater 


1  Halsted,  B.  D.,  Reserve  Food  Materials  in  Buds  and  Surrounding 
Parts.     Memoirs  Torrey  Chib,  2:  1-26,  No.  i.     1890. 


1 86  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

ease  of  getting  appropriate  materials.  It  may  be  conceded, 
too,  that  in  view  of  the  extent  and  nature  of  the  training  of 
the  first  half-year,  it  will  not  be  amiss  to  commence  with  a 
study  of  lower  forms  first,  if  this  is  preferred  by  the  teacher. 
Either  method  is  consistent,  and  one  is  as  logical  as  the  other. 
For  younger  pupils,  it  is  probably  better  to  commence  at  the 
top  of  the  scale.  The  time  of  the  year  and  availability  of 
materials  will  have  a  practical  bearing  on  this  point.  Early 
in  the  year,  in  February  and  March,  algae  and  fungi  are  easily 
obtainable,  the  following  three  months  bringing  the  higher 
plants  in  abundance. 

A  detailed  account  of  the  study  of  type  forms  is,  of  course, 
not  called  for  here ;  and  it  would  occupy  too  much  space  to 
point  out  how  the  dynamic  viewpoint  is  to  be  emphasized  at 
all  points. 

In  the  following  outline,  therefore,  I  shall  not  attempt  to  do 
more  than  mention  the  most  available  and  advantageous  ma- 
terials for  the  high  school,  and  add  such  notes  and  suggestions 
as  seem  of  particular  value.  It  may  be  emphasized  here  that 
the  most  valuable  asset  that  a  teacher  can  have  for  this  part  of 
the  course  is  a  wide  knowledge  of  forms,  without  which  it  is 
well-nigh  impossible  to  present  the  matter  in  a  well-balanced 
fashion. 

The  teacher  will  find  many  additional  suggestions  of  value 
in  Chamberlain's  Methods  in  Plant  Histology ;  in  Cald well's 
Suggestions  to  Teachers,  and  in  Bergen's  Teachers'  Hand-Book. 

Cryptogams  (Flowerless  Plants). 

The  more  immediate  aims  of  the  teacher  should  be  to  help 
the  student:  (i)  to  get  a  fair  notion  of  the  appearance  and 
habits  of  the  plants  of  the  different  large  groups  ;  (2)  to  appre- 
ciate the  physiological  contrast  between  chlorophyllous  and 
non-chlorophyllous  plants,  e.  g.,  algae  and  fungi,  and  their 
correlated  life  habits.  The  economic  importance  of  the  lower 
plants  stands  in  close  relation  to  the  facts  connected  there- 
with; (3)  to  get  a  good  idea  of  alternation  of  generations 


DISCUSSION  OF   THE   COURSE   IN  BOTANY     187 

by  contrasting  the  relative  development  and  complexity  of  the 
gametophyte  and  the  sporophyte ;  (4)  to  gain  a  knowledge  of 
the  essential  features  of  sexual  and  non-sexual  reproduction. 
For  the  first  of  these  aims,  the  school  should  be  provided  with 
a  well-selected  set  of  specimens  for  use  in  demonstration. 
By  the  method  suggested  in  Chapter  IX,  it  is  possible  to 
make  use  of  a  great  deal  of  herbarium  material,  while  mostly 
a  school  herbarium  remains  unused.  Thus  it  is  usually 
impossible  for  high-school  students  to  study,  say,  lichens,  in 
any  detailed  way.  Their  anatomy  is  very  difficult  to  make 
out,  and  only  a  very  small  amount  of  microscopic  work  is 
profitable.  The  pupils  should,  however,  see  enough  of  at 
least  three  well-chosen  types  to  get  a  fair  notion  of  their 
appearance,  and  a  field  lesson  may  well  be  added  to  the 
school  exercise,  for  the  purpose  of  exercising  the  ability  of 
identification. 

The  subject  of  alternation  of  generations  may  be  exempli- 
fied most  profitably  by  the  Bryophyta  and  Pteridophyta.  In 
connection  with  the  Thallophyta,  the  question  is  too  abstruse 
and  academic  in  character  for  young  students.  I  would  there- 
fore not  attempt  to  bring  the  topic  to  their  attention  until  the 
Hepaticse  are  examined. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  most  fascinating  subject  of  life 
habits,  and  the  significance  of  chlorophyll,  is  most  clearly  to 
be  appreciated  by  the  study  of  the  algae  and  fungi.  The  sub- 
sidiary topics  of  symbiosis,  saprophytism,  degeneracy,  and  the 
like  are  here  naturally  prominent.  For  getting  a  satisfactory 
knowledge  of  reproduction,  in  a  wide  sense,  we  find  abun- 
dance of  favorable  material  among  all  the  groups,  and  for 
sexual  reproductive  methods  especially  so.  The  most  avail- 
able forms  are  mentioned  below. 

Myxomycetes. 

Although  these  forms  are  questionable  in  their  affinities,  the 
behavior  of  the  vegetative  body,  the  plasmodium,  is  very 
instructive  and  is  easily  handled.  Abundant  material  may 


1 88  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

be  found  and  grown  in  the  laboratory,  and  the  reactions  to 
light  and  moisture  studied.  If  the  teacher  can  manage  to  get 
a  preparation  which  shows  the  movements  of  the  protoplasm,1 
it  is  well  worth  while  to  take  time  enough  for  each  pupil  to 
see  it.  The  others  may  be  busied  the  while  with  an  exami- 
nation of  the  sporangia  of  a  few  types,  which  are  quite  easily 
preserved  in  a  dry  state.  During  field  work  in  the  early 
autumn,  material  may  be  found  in  abundance  on  rotting  logs, 
leaves,  etc.  Shaded  corners  of  old  fences  are  favorite  local- 
ities for  some  of  these  forms.  I  have  found  a  half  dozen 
different  kinds  in  as  many  minutes  in  such  a  place.2 

Schizophyta. 

Bacteria  (Schiwmycetcs) .  —  The  great  practical  importance 
of  these  forms  is  the  justification  for  some  study  of  them. 
Outside  of  the  examination  of  stained  preparations  of  a  few 
of  the  more  striking  forms,  and  of  a  large  motile  form 
(Spirillum},  microscopic  work  is  of  no  further  importance. 
The  chief  interest  in  the  study  of  these  organisms  is  physio- 
logical, pathological,  and  technical,  and  even  their  classifica- 
tion is  based  upon  physiological  characters.  The  work  should 
therefore  be  chiefly  experimental. 

The  most  useful  forms  for  demonstration  are  as  follows : 

Hay  bacillus  and  a  small  motile  Spirillum  may  be  obtained 
in  hay  infusion  two  or  more  days  old. 

A  spore-forming  bacillus  occurs  on  raw  potato  which  has 
been  kept  moist  for  two  or  three  days.  Spore  formation  never 
fails  to  take  place. 

A  very  large  Spirillum -form  may  be  obtained  in  old  alga 
cultures,  especially  on  addition  of  a  small  amount  of  CaSO4 
(Calcium  sulfate). 

The  drippings  of  steam  exhaust   pipes  on.  engines  usually 


1  For  directions,  see  Stevens's  Introduction  to  Botany,  p.  103.     Mac- 
bride,  T.  H.,  The  Slime  Moulds,  Rhodora.     April,  1900. 

2  For  discussion  of  affinities,  see  Bessey's  Briefer  Course,  last  ed. 


DISCUSSION  OF   THE   COURSE  IN  BOTANY    189 

furnish  iron  bacteria  —  useful  for  connecting  morphologically 
the  bacteria  and  blue-green  algae. 

In  old  cultures  of  Nitella,  Cladothrix  may  be  found. 

For  other  suggestions  see  Outline  for  Bacteriology  for  High 
Schools,  Frost,  W.  D.,  and  Hastings,  E.  G. 1 ;  Stevens's  Intro- 
duction to  Botany,  p.  254  ;  Peabody's  Laboratory  Exercises 
in  Anatomy  and  Physiology,  p.  67. 

Discussions.  —  The  instructor  may  very  profitably  give  a 
brief  sketch  of  the  history  of  bacteriology,  referring  especially 
to  the  work  of  Leeuwenhoek,  Lister,  and  Pasteur ; 2  Biogenesis 
and  abiogenesis  ; 3  Infection  and  immunity  ; 4  Plant  and  Ani- 
mal Diseases ; 5  the  great  importance  of  hygienic  conditions 
and  habits. 

Note.  —  The  outline  above  given  for  work  with  bacteria  is 
probably  too  long  to  form  a  part  of  a  regular  course  in  Botany. 
Such  work  is,  however,  without  doubt,  most  valuable  infor- 
mationally,  aside  from  the  value  as  training.  In  some  high 
schools  (e.  g.,  in  the  Boys  and  Girls  High  School,  of  New 
York)  bacteriological  work  forms  part  of  a  course  in  physi- 
ology, and  has  been  carried  on  very  successfully.  There  is 
no  reason  why,  if  a  course  in  general  physiology  is  given  in 
the  eighth  grade,  it  should  not  be  made  part  of  the  plant 
physiology  work. 

Blue-  Green  Algce  (Schizophycece) .  —  The  blue-green  algae  are 
very  common  and  easy  to  get,  and  some,  e.  g.,  Oscillatoria, 
on  account  of  their  movements,  are  instructive  objects  for 
study.  They  present,  however,  no  feature  of  any  great  impor- 


1  Jour.  App.  Micros.,  6:  2205.     March,  1903. 

2  Pasteur's   original   classical   paper   on   the   presence   of  organized 
bodies  in  the  atmosphere  is  available,  in  German,  as  a  reprint  published 
by  W.  Engelmann,  Leipzig. 

3  An  admirable  brief  discussion,  a  model  for  the   teacher,  is  to  be 
found  in  T.  J.  Parker's  Lessons  in  Elementary  Biology.     London,  Mac- 
millan  Co.     1891.     Lesson  9. 

4  See  Sternberg's  Infection  and  Immunity. 

5  Much  valuable  literature  is  to  be  obtained  from  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture. 


THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

tance  for  high  school  work,  and  they  may,  therefore,  be  treated 
very  briefly,  or  omitted  if  time  is  lacking.  If  a  greenhouse  is 
available  the  root  tubercles  formed  on  cycadean  roots  in 
which  a  symbiotic  fission-alga  may  be  examined.  The  re- 
markable case  of  Azolla  and  its  algal  symbiont  serves  as  an 
interesting  example  for  brief  discussion ;  the  case  of  the  liver- 
wort Blasia  scarcely  less  so. 

The  chief  reason  for  referring  to  these  plants  is  their 
economic  importance  as  agents  in  the  contamination  of  water 
supply.1 

Thallophyta. 

Algce.  —  The  green  and  brown  algae  are  of  great  educational 
importance  on  account  of  the  clearness  with  which  the  sexual 
process  of  reproduction  may  be  studied.2  For  this  purpose 
Spirogyra  and  Vaucheria,  among  the  green  algae,  are  the  best 
types ;  among  the  browns,  Fucus.  They  are  common,  and 
the  sexual  organs  may  readily  be  obtained.  A  rather  careful 
microscopic  study  of  Spirogyra  and  Vaucheria  is  amply  justi- 
fied. If  time  permits  Fucus  may  be  added,  since  the  living 
material  may  be  shipped  by  express  from  the  seaboard.3  Pre- 
served material  may  be  used,  but  is  not  so  valuable.  Alcohol 
should  be  used.  This  will  shrink  the  thallus,  and  harden  it. 
The  sections  will  swell  up  when  placed  in  sea-water  which  can 
be  made  artificially  if  not  otherwise  obtainable. 

It  does  not  appear  profitable  to  spend  time  in  the  study  of 


1  See  Farlow,  W.  G  ,  On  Some  Impurities  of  Drinking-Water  caused 
by  Vegetable  Growths.      Massachusetts  Board  of  Health,  First  Annual 
Report.    131.    1880.     Moore,  G.  T.,  The  Contamination  of  Public  Water 
Supplies  by  Algae.      Yearbook  of  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 
1902.     p.  175. 

2  A  good  general  account  on  The  Origin  of  Sex  in  Plants,  by  B.  M. 
Davis,  can  be  found  in  Popidar  Science  Monthly,  November,  1901.     Also 
The  Evolution  of  Sex.     Ibid.     February,  1903. 

8  Material  has  reached  Kansas  from  New  York,  and  has  then  been 
used  to  demonstrate  fertilization. 


DISCUSSION  OF  THE   CQL7RSE  IN  BOTANY     IQI 

the  minute  structure  of  the  algae  beyond  that  of  Spirogyra. 
This  plant,  however,  is  remarkable  both  in  structure  and 
for  its  beauty,  and  is,  too,  a  splendid  test  of  the  ability  to  inter- 
pret what  one  sees.  This  on  account  of  the  spiral  chloro- 
plasts.  Species  with  not  more  than  three  or  four  chloroplasts 
should  be  chosen,  as  otherwise  the  structure  becomes  obscured. 
Very  beautiful  results  may  be  obtained  by  staining  with  a  watery 
solution  of  iodine  (KI  and  I)  and  eosin.  If  this  stain  is  of 
proper  strength,  the  nucleus  and  cytoplasm  will  be  stained  pink, 
and  the  starch  in  the  pyrenoid  blue,  the  chlorophyll  remaining 
for  some  time  green. 

The  reconstruction  of  a  transverse  section  of  a  Spirogyra  cell 
taken  through  the  nucleus  is  the  best  possible  test  of  the 
student's  ability  to  interpret  what  he  sees  through  the  micro- 
scope. In  such  a  drawing  the  nucleus,  chloroplasts,  cytoplasm 
(threads  radiating  from  the  nuclei  and  peripheral  layer),  and 
cell' wall  should  appear.  It  is  well  worth  while,  if  time  and 
other  conditions  allow  the  introduction  of  these  studies  at  all, 
to  do  the  work  on  Spirogyra  in  a  thoroughly  satisfactory 
manner. 

Conjugating  material  should  be  collected  and  preserved  in 
a  chrome-alum-formalin  mixture.  Enough  preparations  for 
demonstration  may  be  prepared  in  a  short  time. 

Vaucheria  is  valuable  for  the  contrast  it  shows  in  comparison 
with  Spirogyra  in  regard  to  the  reproductive  elements.  In 
Spirogyra  the  sexual  cells  are  structurally  similar,  while  physi- 
ologically there  is  a  difference  seen  in  the  motility  of  one  of 
them.  In  Vancheria,  the  structural  difference  is  marked,  the 
egg  being  large  and  well  supplied  with  food,  and  the  sperm 
cell  small  and  highly  motile.  Beyond  the  study  of  this  point 
it  will  hardly  pay  to  go  in  high-school  work,  since  Vaucheria 
is  not  typical  in  its  anatomy.  It  belongs  to  the  Siphonea,  a 
curious  aberrant  group  of  plants. 

The  carposporic  type  of  reproduction  is,  I  believe,  too  diffi- 
cult for  very  elementary  pupils,  since  it  involves  too  delicate 
observation  and  interpretation.  However,  it  may  be  pointed 


IQ2  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

out  that  Batrachospermum  (growing  in  running  streams)  and 
Nemalion  (marine)  are  good  forms  for  class  work.  Material 
may  be  obtained  from  dealers. 

Fucus  is  most  useful  for  demonstrating  the  process  of  fer- 
tilization, and  is  so  hardy  that  young  plants  will  grow  slowly  for 
a  month  or  more  in  watch-glass.  The  only  precaution  neces- 
sary is  to  see  that  the  normal  salinity  is  maintained  by  adding 
fresh  water  as  the  water  in  the  watch-glass  evaporates. 

In  order  successfully  to  see  the  sperm  cells  actively  swim- 
ming about  the  eggs,  a  dioecious  species  {Fucus  vesciculosus} 
should  be  chosen.  The  male  and  female  plants  should  be 
separated  and  kept  fairly  warm  in  the  dark  (in  a  tin  box) 
and  moist,  but  not  under  water.  When  the  eggs  and  sperms 
have  oozed  out  from  the  conceptacles,  they  are  ready  for  use. 
They  should  be  mixed  in  a  watch-glass  or  on  a  slide.  This  is 
possible  only  from  November  to  January  on  material  from  the 
eastern  coast. 

For  the  study  of  zoospores,  the  best  material  of  wide  distri- 
bution that  I  know  of  is  Drapanaldia,  which  may  be  obtained 
in  early  spring  in  slowly  running  streams  attached  to  stones, 
leaves,  etc.  If  plants  are  brought  in  and  placed  in  vessels 
over  night,  the  next  morning  the  whole  process  of  zob'spore 
formation  may  be  watched  with  great  ease.  This  form  is  well 
worth  introducing  into  all  elementary  work,  for  no  one  can 
fail  to  be  interested  in  the  process.  Ulothrix,  which  occurs  in 
brackish  waters,  is  exceedingly  good.  Ulva,  which  can  be 
kept  in  aquaria,  may  also  be  used.1 

Other  forms  which  may  be  studied  are  diatoms  (for  their 
shells  and  movements)  ;  Pleurococcus  (arrangement  of  cells)  ; 
Spharella  {Hamatococcus)  lacustris*  ("red  snow"  plant). 

CEdogonium,  Nitella  (for  the  movement  of  protoplasm.     A 


1  See  also  Coker,  W.  C.,  Algae  and  Fungi  for  Class  Work.    Jour. 
App.  Micros. ,  6:  2411.     July,  1903. 

2  A   full   description    of    this    interesting   plant,   by    Hazen,    T.    E., 
Sphaerella   lacustris.       Memoirs    of  the    Torrey   Botanical   Club,  6 :   pp. 
211-244;  2  colored  plates.     1899. 


DISCUSSION  OF  THE   COURSE  IN  BOTANY     193 

very  instructive  object,  especially  if  there  happens  to  be  a 
binocular  microscope  available).  Coleoch&te  has  been  recom- 
mended by  Atkinson  as  illustrative  of  the  beginnings  of  alter- 
nation of  generations.  It  is,  however,  like  Nemalion  and 
Batrachospermum,  not  adapted  to  young  students,  and  is  hard 
to  obtain,  except  through  dealers.  It  appears,  however,  to  be 
obtainable  by  allowing  cultures  of  algae  to  stand  for  a  consider- 
able period  —  about  five  or  six  months.1  It  is  suggested  by 
W.  C.  Coker 2  that  cover  glasses  be  suspended  in  culture  jars 
on  the  side  away  from  the  light,  since  the  common  form  is 
hard  to  remove  from  the  surface  of  the  glass  without  breaking. 

The  laboratory  exercises  should  be  supplemented  with  an 
opportunity  for  the  pupils  to  examine  a  good  series  of  her- 
barium material  of  the  algae,  for  the  sake  of  getting  a  general 
idea  of  their  appearance.  Many  forms  may  also  be  grown  in 
small  aquaria  including  the  marine  form  —  Ulva,  and  some 
others. 

Fungi.  —  The  wide  range  of  adaptation  and  the  very  great 
economic  importance  of  fungi  make  them  important  objects 
of  study.  The  classification,  except  in  a  very  broad  sense  is, 
however,  difficult  and  not  pertinent  for  elementary  work.  In 
point  of  fact,  the  recognition  of  the  fungi  as  a  group  is  based 
on  a  wholly  physiological  character,  and  it  would  be  just  as 
logical  and  true  to  the  facts  to  regard  the  Indian  Pipe  (Mono- 
tropa)  as  a  fungus,  while  really  it  is  a  flowering  plant,  as 
every  one  knows.  The  fungi,  then,  are  not  a  continuous  series  ; 
as  in  the  algae,  the  three  types  of  reproduction  are  to  be 
found. 

If  the  subject  of  reproduction  is  taken  up  at  all,  the  follow- 
ing are  the  best  and  most  available  materials. 

Sporodinia  grandis  may  be  obtained  in  the  autumn  by  col- 
lecting some  of  the  firmer  kinds  of  toadstools  and  keeping 


1  Hickman,  Mary  A.,  A  Method  of  Raising  Coleochaete.    Jour.  App. 
Micros.,  6:  2256.     April,  1903. 

a  Jour.  App.  Micros.,  6:  2411.     July,  1903. 

13 


194  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

them  under  glass  covers  to  prevent  drying  out.  It  will  be 
very  certain  to  produce  zygospores.1 

The  Cystopus  on  the  common  ragweed  will  illustrate  the 
oosporic  type.  The  sexual  elements  are  easily  obtained. 

The  ascosporic  type  cannot  be  studied  by  elementary 
students  except  so  far  as  they  can  examine  the  result  in  the 
"  fruit." 

The  pretty  red  Lachnella,  found  very  commonly  on  decay- 
ing wood,  is  good  for  illustrating  the  Peziza  type.  At  this 
point  it  is  profitable  to  compare  with  the  Peziza  cup,  the 
"  fruit "  of  the  Lichens  (refer  to,  or  introduce  here,  Pleuro- 
coccus}  for  which  the  common  Physcia  stellaris  is  a  good 
type. 

Of  the  powdery  mildews,  Microsph&ra  (on  lilac  leaves,  very 
common  late  summer  and  autumn)  is  very  interesting  on 
account  of  the  beautiful  anchors  radiating  from  the  fruit,  and 
Undnula  (common  on  maple  leaves)  scarcely  less  so,  though 
possessed  of  simple  hooks. 

The  work  on  the  Basidiomycetes,  including  the  puff  balls, 
should  be  chiefly  of  the  natural  history  character,  and  this  is 
true  also  of  the  rusts  and  smuts.  These  latter  should,  how- 
ever, not  be  neglected  because  of  their  great  economic  im- 
portance. The  teacher  can  profitably  refer  to  the  early  (1760) 
Massachusetts  legislation  against  the  barberry,  before  its  rela- 
tion to  wheat  was  understood.2  The  great  annual  loss  to 
this  country  on  account  of  corn  smut,  amounting  to  over 
$2,000,000  annually,8  certainly  .warrants  reference  to  this 
plant. 

Educationally,  the  fungi  have  practical  advantages  in  their 
abundance,  in  many  cases  their  ease  of  culture,  and  in  their 
availability  for  field  work.  It  seems  therefore  reasonable  to 
emphasize  in  the  high  school  the  study  of  the  more  obvious 


1  Coker,  W.  C.,  loc.  cit. 

2  Plowright,   C.   B.,    British    Uredinea   and   Ustilaginea.       London. 
Kegan  Paul,  Trench  &  Co.     1889.     p.  47. 

8  United  States  Year-book  Department  Agriculture.     1902. 


DISCUSSION  OF  THE   COURSE  IN  BOTANY     195 

characters  of  a  good  number  of  kinds,  rather  than  to  expend 
too  much  time  in  details.  It  should  be  pointed  out,  however, 
that  there  is  a  good  deal  of  such  work,  which  is  at  present 
done  in  the  high  schools,  which  could  be  done  as  easily  in 
the  elementary  schools,  as,  for  instance,  the  recognition  of  the 
chief  kinds  of  the  large  forms  of  toadstools  and  mushrooms, 
and  the  relations  of  many  of  these  to  diseases  in  trees.  Even 
the  more  obvious  rusts  and  mildews  on  common  plants  and 
the  common  saprophytic  kinds,  in  their  gross  features  recog- 
nizable to  the  naked  eye,  or  with  a  large  reading  lens,  might 
be  studied  in  the  higher  grades.  If  this  were  done,  much 
time  would  be  saved  for  the  high-school  course,  and  better 
and  more  intensive  work  there  done. 

It  is  very  easy  to  grow  many  common  forms,  including 
Mucorineae,  Penicillium,  coprophilous  fungi,1  etc.  Almost  any 
substratum  will  produce  something  worth  observing. 

The  following  topics  for  discussion  and  reading  may  be  sug- 
gested. 

Absence  of  chlorophyll  and  correlated  life  habits.  Role  of 
fungi  is  underground  plant  parts  (Symbiosis).  Plant  and 
animal  diseases,  and  the  great  loss  and  distress  caused  by  fungi, 
e.  g.,  famine  in  Ireland  caused  by  Phytophthora  infestans  of 
potato  rot. 

Method  of  entrance  of  fungi  into  the  higher  plants  (corre- 
lated with  anatomy  of  leaf) . 

The  teacher  will  find  a  good  account  of  the  fungi  in  L.  M. 
Underwood's  Moulds,  Mildews,  and  Mushrooms.  Also  Conn, 
H.  W.,  Bacteria,  Yeasts  and  Molds  in  the  Home. 

Lichenes.  —  As  suggested  above,  the  fungal  character  of  the 
lichens  is  indicated  by  the  peziza  type  of  "  fruit."  2  Further 
anatomical  work  other  than  the  demonstration  of  the  algal 


1  For  a  monograph  of  these,  see  Griffiths,  D.,  The  North  American 
Sordariaceae.     Memoirs  Torrey  Botanical  Club,  n  :  pp.  1-134,  19  plates. 
1901.    $1.75. 

2  The  Basidiolichenes  need  not  be  taken  into  account  here. 


196  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

element  need  not  be  done.  The  pupil  may,  however,  be  led 
to  distinguish  the  chief  common  types,  especially  as  to  habit 
(crustaceous,  foliaceous,  fruticose).  A  great  help  to  both 
teacher  and  pupil  are  the  well-illustrated  papers  by  Mrs.  C.  W. 
Harris,  in  the  Bryologist  (from  Vol.  IV  on).  A  handy  manual 
is  Schneider,  A.,  A  Guide  to  the  Study  of  Lichens. 

Bryophyta. 

These  plants  and  the  ferns  are  especially  useful  in  the  study 
of  symmetry  and  alternation  of  generation,  since  in  all  of 
them  the  sporophyte  and  the  gainetophyte  are  well  enough 
developed  to  be  readily  studied,  even  without  the  help  of  the 
compound  microscope.  The  subsidiary  topics  which  are  con- 
nected with  the  understanding  of  the  evolution  of  the  sporo- 
phyte are  :  (i )  The  relative  persistence  of  the  sporophyte  and 
gametophyte  in  each  group  and  in  the  different  groups.  Con- 
nected with  this  is  the  mode  of  development  of  the  sporophyte 
in  each  group;  (2)  The  degree  of  complexity,  as  indicated  by 
their  organ-forming  power,  of  sporophyte  and  gametophyte. 
Anatomical  evidence  is,  perhaps,  less  available  in  elementary 
work,  chiefly  on  account  of  lack  of  time  and  the  necessity  of 
technique. 

Hepaticx  {Liverworts}.  —  For  the  above-named  purposes 
no  materials  are  more  varied  and  interesting,  and  at  the  same 
time  more  easily  studied  than  the  liverworts.  The  temptation 
is  to  spend  too  much  time  on  them.  While  most  of  them  are 
rather  small,  they  are  not  so  much  so  that  they  are  not  studied 
readily  with  hand  lenses,  or  at  most  with  low  powers  of  the 
microscope.  They  are,  moreover,  easily  obtained,  and  may  be 
preserved  dry.  Their  small  size  favors  the  storage  of  a  great 
deal  of  material  in  small  space.  After  thorough  wetting 1  the 
individual  plants  may  be  separated  and  placed  in  water  in  small 


1  In  some  it  is  a  little  difficult  to  get  rid  of  air  bubbles,  but  this  may 
be  done  with  a  brief  immersion  in  boiling  water  or  alcohol. 


DISCUSSION  OF   THE   COURSE  IN  BOTANY     197 

white  dishes  (small  sauce  or  butter  plates),  and  each  pupil 
may  then  have  abundance  of  good  material. 

It  is  singular  that  these  plants,  particularly  the  foliose  hepa- 
ticae,  have  been  so  little  made  use  of  in  elementary  courses,  but 
the  reason  appears  to  be  that  they  are  so  little  known  and 
they  are,  therefore,  supposed  to  be  difficult  to  find  and  to 
study,  which  is  contrary  to  fact.1  Many  of  them  are  readily 
grown  in  the  laboratory  if  kept  in  a  reasonably  moist  atmos- 
phere,2 on  well-drained  soil.  Especially  instructive  is  material 
(e.  g.,  Pellia}  collected  in  very  early  spring  when  the  sporo- 
gonia  are  small.  These  will  develop  in  the  laboratory  and 
the  whole  behavior  of  the  capsule  may  be  watched  with 
ease. 

Generally  Marchantia  has  had  chief  attention,  but  there  is 
no  doubt  that  it  is  among  the  least  useful  of  the  liverworts  for 
general  study,  inasmuch  as  it  is  a  very  highly  specialized  type, 
both  anatomically  and  physiologically.  It  is  far  too  difficult 
to  study,  except  as  regards  its  general  features.  The  gemmae 
are,  of  course,  useful  on  account  of  their  size,  and  the  ease  of 
experimenting  on  dorsiventrality  for  which  purpose  also  the 
gemmae  of  Lunularia,  so  common  in  greenhouses,  are  equally 
good. 

For  the  study  of  archegonia  the  liverworts  are  not  quite  so 
good,  perhaps,  as  mosses,  and  if  such  study  is  undertaken  by 
pupils  individually,  which  I  think  cannot  be  done,  the  mosses 
would  better  be  used.  Marchantia,  however,  offers  advantages 
in  this  detail.  The  antheridia  are  comparatively  easy  to  man- 
age in  both  mosses  and  liverworts.  In  the  former  especially 
the  living  sperm  cells  may  readily  be  observed.  It  would  be 
better,  I  believe,  for  the  teacher  to  make  use  of  well-prepared 


1  The  series  of  articles  in  the  Bryologist,  by  W.  C.  Barbour,  will  be 
found  useful,  as  also  Underwood's  systematic  treatment  in  Gray's  Man- 
ual, by  means  of  which  the  genera,  at  any  rate,  can  be  easily  named. 

2  Too  moist  an  atmosphere  will  produce   unusual    reactions,  which 
disturb  the  usual  appearance.     Such  reactions,  however,  are  instructive 
to  the  student. 


198  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

sections  and  of  charts  and  diagrams.  The  stages  of  the  spo- 
rophyte  may,  however,  be  studied  without  much  difficulty,  if  a 
clearing  agent  (lactic  acid  is  very  good)  is  used.  Total  prep- 
arations mounted  in  glycerine  jelly  may  also  be  used,  and 
can  be  kept  in  sufficient  numbers  of  duplicates  for  classes. 
Thus  time  will  be  saved. 

The  most  readily  obtainable  types  are  the  following :  Rad- 
ula  and  Porella  (on  tree  trunks),  Cephalozia  (on  borders  of 
swampy  places,  hummocks,  decaying  logs),  or  Scapania  (on 
moist,  shady  banks ;  a  beautiful  large  species  grows  in  hilly 
places),  are  good  for  general  characters,  as  they  produce  sporo- 
phytes  abundantly.  Frullania  (common  on  tree  trunks)  is 
interesting  on  account  of  the  pitcher  leaves,  and  fruits  abun- 
dantly. A  little  field  experience  will  discover  many  others 
equally  good  in  one  feature  or  another. 

Musci  (the  true  mosses).  —  The  points  of  general  interest 
in  comparison  with  the  liverworts  are  the  occurrence  of  an 
extensive  protonema  (dimorphism  of  the  gametophyte),  the 
radial  symmetry  in  the  gametophyte  (absent  in  the  Hepaticae), 
the  mode  of  development  of  the  sporophyte  (the  younger 
tissue  at  its  top),  the  specialization  of  capsular  tissues,  of 
which  the  elaborate  peristome,  annulus,  and  chlorenchyma 
are  the  result,  and  the  secondary  elaboration  of  the  arche- 
gonium  wall  to  form  the  calyptra,  which  serves  to  protect  the 
young  tissue  of  the  sporophyte  during  the  lengthening  of  the 
seta. 

The  more  useful  types  are  Polytrichum^  or  Hair-moss,  for 
general  characters.  The  antheridia  are  especially  easy  to  get 
at,  and  can  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye  on  pulling  apart  the 
male  "  flowers."  It  is  very  good  for  sectioning.  Philonotis 
fontana  is  also  good  for  antheridia ;  for  antheridia,  and 
especially  for  archegonia,  Mnium  is  very  good.  Pogonatum 
tenue  is  especially  valuable  for  its  extensive  protonena,  and 
is  common  on  shaded  clay  banks.  The  calyptra  is  similar 
to  that  of  \hzPolytricha.  Georgia  (Tetr aphis}  pellucidia  for 
gemmae  and  for  a  simple  peristome.  Funarid,  for  general 


DISCUSSION  OF  THE   COURSE  IN  BOTANY     199 

characters,  and  especially  for  the  beautiful  peristonric  move- 
ments, and  the  shedding  of  the  annulus,  when  the  capsule  is 
immersed  in  water.  To  do  this  successfully,  material  should 
be  gathered,  usually  in  June,  when  well  ripened  and  dried. 
The  pupils  may  place  a  few  dry  sporophytes  in  water,  in  a 
small  vessel,  and  observe  the  movements  of  the  seta,  the 
exfoliation  of  the  annulus  and  the  loss  of  the  operculum. 
Upon  drying,  the  capsules  may  be  attached  to  slides  with 
paraffin,  so  that  the  peristome  is  directed  upwards.  On 
applying  the  lower  power,  the  hygroscopic  movements  of 
the  peristome  teeth,  when  breathed  upon,  are  quickly  dis- 
played. 

The  adaptation  of  leaves  as  in  Sphagnum  l  and  Leucobryum, 
for  holding  water ;  the  elaborated  chlorophyll  bearing  laminae 
in  Polytrichum  leaves,  the  occasional  secondary  bilaterality, 
as  in  Fissidens,  and  the  methods  of  spore  dissemination,  are 
topics  of  interest  for  the  teacher  to  elucidate.2 

Pteridophyta  (Ferns  and  Fern  Allies). 

The  extent  to  which  the  structures  of  these  forms  may  be 
studied  is  so  well  understood  that  but  little  need  be  said. 
The  ground  covered  in  such  text-books  as  that  of  Stevens, 
of  Bergen,  and  of  Andrews  represents  fairly  what  may  usually 
be  done,  and  the  teacher  will  by  consulting  these  get  helpful 
suggestions. 

The  true  ferns  may  be  grown  indoors  easily.  Lycopodium 
must  be  collected.  Dried  material  of  this  genus,  if  it  has  not 
been  pressed  too  hard,  will,  upon  boiling,  be  restored  to  its 
usual  appearance,  color  excepted.  Selaginella  can  be  grown 


1  The  economic  value  of  Sphagnum  as  a  peat-forming  agent  should 
be  touched  upon. 

2  For  an  interesting  series  of  papers,  see  Grout,  A.  J.,  The  Peristome. 
The   Bryologist,  April,  1901,5:  53,  73,  94.    1902,  etc.    Also  his  Mosses 
with  a  Hand  Lens  (very  good  for  beginners),  and  Mosses  with  a  Hand 
Lens  and  Microscope.     Many  other  papers  appear  from  time  to  time  in 
the  Bryologist. 


200  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

indoors  as  easily  as  the  ferns,  but  needs  a  moister  air.  They 
should,  therefore,  be  covered  with  glass.  Equisetum  must 
be  collected  in  early  spring.  Fern  prothallia  may  be  grown 
readily.1 

It  is  hardly  possible  for  pupils  to  make  out  much  about  the 
antheridia  and  archegonia.  With  a  little  skill,  however,  the 
teacher  may  demonstrate  the  antherozoids.  To  do  this  a 
mature  prothallium  must  be  taken  after  it  has  remained  for 
twenty- four  hours  without  watering,  and  with  no  free  water. 
It  should  be  mounted  upside  down,  in  a  very  small  drop  of 
water,  covered  with  a  cover  glass  and  after  a  while  pressed 
lightly.  Generally  such  treatment  will  be  rewarded.  The 
objection  to  this  kind  of  work  is  that  it  does  take  a  good  deal 
of  time ;  but  I  believe  that  it  is  worth  it  if  the  teacher  is 
skilful.  Other  work  may  engage  the  attention  of  pupils  who 
are  not  occupied  by  the  demonstration,  so  that  it  need  not 
mean  loss  of  time  for  any  of  them.  If  the  number  of  students 
is  so  great  as  to  make  the  demonstration  of  living  sperms 
impossible,  a  good  preparation  may  be  made  by  fixing  and 
staining  the  sperms  with  iodine-eosin,  taking  care  that  the 
amount  of  potassium  iodide  is  not  great  enough  to  cause 
collapse  of  the  sac. 

In  the  true  ferns,  the  points  of  study  may  be  somewhat  as 
follows :  Sporophyte :  relative  position  of  stem  and  leaf. 
Form  of  leaf :  the  venation  of  several  types  to  discover  gen- 
eral character ;  position  of  sorus  with  reference  to  venation 
and  form  of  three  types  of  indusium  in  different  genera.  Ab- 
sence of  indusium  (Polypodiuni)  ;  false  indusium  (Pteridium) . 
For  elementary  work,  there  is  no  value  in  the  study  of  the 
stem  anatomy.  General  structure  of  sporangia  (/.  e.,  especially 
the  annulus),  and  their  movements,  demonstrated  by  the  use 
of  glycerine.2  Or  a  piece  of  a  leaf  rich  with  ripe  sporangia 


1  For  excellent  directions  for  growing  prothallia,  see  Chamberlain's 
Methods  in  Plant  Histology,  p.  104.     Also  Andrews's  Botany  all  the  Year 
Round,  p.  254. 

2  Atkinson's  Elementary  Botany,  pp.  171-173. 


DISCUSSION  OF   THE   COURSE   IN  BOTANY     2OI 

may  be  wet  thoroughly  and  then  allowed  to  dry,  lying  with 
the  sporangial  surface  up,  on  a  piece  of  white  paper.  As  the 
sporangia  dry,  the  spores  will  be  expelled  to  some  distance, 
which  may  be  measured.  Herbarium  material  collected  just 
before  the  sporangia  are  completely  matured  is  best.  Study 
growing  prothallia  and  some  which  have  young  sporophytes. 
Make  up  a  series  showing  the  development  so  far  as  can  be 
made  out  with  a  hand  lens.  Demonstrate  sections  of  pro- 
thallia showing  archegonia  and  antheridia.  Enlarged  photo- 
micrographs would  be  useful  here. 

Equisetum.  —  Examination  of  fertile  and  sterile  shoots, 
spores,  and  their  movements  by  means  of  the  elaters.  Pro- 
thallia may  be  grown  from  fresh  spores  and  early  stages 
demonstrated. 

Herbarium  specimens  of  Lycopodium  and  Selaginella  may 
be  exhibited.  Additional  points  of  study  in  Lycopodium  are 
the  spores  (all  of  one  size),  and  the  differences  between  foliage 
leaves  and  sporophylls.  In  Selaginella,  the  two  different  sizes 
of  spores  (heterospory). 

At  this  point  a  brief  sketch  of  the  geological  history  of  the 
pteridophytes  should  be  given,  attention  being  called  to  the 
character  of  the  vegetation  of  the  coal  period,  and  the  nature 
and  origin  of  .coal.  For  this  reason,  it  is  especially  important 
for  the  pupil  to  become  acquainted  with  Equisetum  and 
Lycopodium,  as  remnants  of  a  once  widespread  and  huge 
vegetation. 

The  following  types  may  be  demonstrated  by  means  of 
museum  preparations.  Nothing  more  than  an  examination 
sufficient  to  get  a  general  idea  of  the  form  of  the  plants 
should  be  required.  This  is  therefore  to  be  done  very  briefly. 
Isoetes,  Marsilia  (venation,  leaf  unrolling),  Pillularia,  not  in 
North  America  generally  (leaf  unrolling),  Salvinia,  Azolla. 

In  order  to  continue  the  study  of  alternation  of  generations, 
and  especially  to  direct  the  attention  to  the  evolution  of  the 
sporophyte,  a  very  good  method  is  to  point  out  its  simple 
anatomical  and  physiological  character  in  the  liverworts  and 


202  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

the  early  development  of  the  sporangium.  In  the  true  mosses, 
the  sterile  tissue  is  much  more  extensive  relatively,  and  the 
sporangium  develops  later,  and  there  is  found  even  in  the 
capsule  a  relatively  large  amount  of  photosynthetic  tissue  and 
a  complicated  mechanism  for  setting  free  the  spores.  The 
teacher  will  keep  in  mind,  of  course,  that  the  liverworts, 
mosses,  ferns,  and  the  fern  allies  do  not  represent  a  direct  line 
of  development.  We  may,  however,  see  in  them  advancing 
stages  of  complexity  in  development,  which  enable  us  to  form 
a  legitimate  notion  of  evolution.  In  the  ferns,  forms  such  as 
Aspidium,  Onoclea,  or  Osmunda,  Marsilia  beans,  and  Selagi- 
nella,  followed  by  the  pine  scale,  lead  up  well  to  the  under- 
standing of  the  sporophyll  in  the  Angiosperms.1  In  Aspidium, 
only  a  small  amount  of  the  tissue  is  spore  producing,  the  green 
leaf  (photosynthetic  tissue)  having  full  development.  In 
Onoclea,  the  whole  of  certain  fronds  becomes  considerably 
reduced  in  extent,  and  contracted  into  organs  enclosing  the 
sporangia.  In  Marsilia,  the  highly  specialized  organ  pro- 
duced on  the  leaf,  which  enclosing  the  sporangia  offers  an 
illustration  of  a  step  in  the  direction  of  the  development  of 
the  ovule,  which  here  contains  two  kinds  of  spores.  These 
may  be  seen  easily  by  placing  the  beans  in  water  until  the 
gelatinous  ring  swells  discovering  the  spores.2  In  Selaginella 
the  two  kinds  of  spores  are  found  in  separate  sporangia,  and 
the  leaves  which  produce  them  are  small.  The  ligule  is  of  no 
importance  here.  The  general  correspondence  to  the  condi- 
tion in  Pinus  or  other  Pinaceae  is  readily  seen,  and  the  step 
from  the  gymnospermous  to  the  angiospermous  condition, 
involving  the  evolution  of  the  flower,  is  then  not  difficult  to 
understand  in  a  general  way.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  all  the 
work  by  the  pupils  on  these  interesting  plants  may  be  done 
with  a  hand  lens.8 


1  Coulter  and  Chamberlain,  Morphology  of  Angiosperms ,  Chapter  II. 

2  Material  may  be  obtained  through  dealers. 

8  A  most  useful  volume,  for  teacher  and  pupil  alike,  is  Waters'  Ferns. 
If  one  book  on  ferns  for  the  pupils'  reference  shelf  is  to  be  chosen,  it 
should  be  this. 


DISCUSSION  OF   THE   COURSE  IN  BOTANY     203 

The  introductory  chapters  to  Underwood's  Our  Native  Ferns 
and  Their  Allies  constitute  a  first-class  essay  on  general  matters 
pertaining  to  the  Pteridophyta. 


Phanerogams  (the  flowering  plants). 

Gymnosperms.  —  If  the  outline  above  suggested  has  been 
followed,  the  structure  of  the  cone  will  be  already  understood, 
but  may  be  briefly  reviewed  in  this  connection.  The  pollen 
of  the  pines  is  well  worth  microscopic  examination,  on  ac- 
count of  the  special  adaptation  in  the  bladdery  appendages, 
which  are  connected  with  the  wind  as  the  agent  for  pollina- 
tion. Field  work  should,  if  possible,  be  arranged  for  at  the 
time  of  flowering,  especially  if  the  conifers  are  abundant  in 
the  region. 

A  very  large  amount  of  pollen  is  often  to  be  found  in  some 
regions,  making  the  ground  yellow.  When  not  so  abundant 
it  may  still  be  seen  forming  yellow  streaks  about  the  bases  of 
rocks  from  which  it  has  fallen  or  been  washed  by  the  rain. 
Both  kinds  of  cones  should  be  sought  for,  and  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  scales  for  catching  the  flying  pollen  examined. 
Attention  may  also  be  directed  to  the  position  of  the  cones  at 
flowering,  and  later  in  the  season  to  the  carpotropic  (antho- 
tropic)  movements,  which  occur  in  some  kinds  (Picea,  Pseu- 
dotsuga,  Tsuga,  etc.).  Seedlings  may  be  looked  for,  and  a 
good  piece  of  field  work  done  in  elementary  forestry  by 
determining  the  number  and  age  of  seedlings  which  have 
grown  in  or  near  a  wooded  area,  and  so  whether  they 
germinate  and  develop  least  in  the  forest  or  in  the  open.  By 
studying  the  branching,  very  close  estimates  of  the  age  of 
conifers  may  be  made,  if  they  are  not  too  old.  The  length 
of  time  the  leaves  persist  may  be  made  out,  together  with  the 
general  character  of  the  foliage.  It  will  be  good  training  to 
learn  to  recognize  the  different  genera  by  their  leaf  characters, 
the  leaf  regarded  as  a  whole  and  in  transverse  sections.  The 
morphology  of  the  fascicles  in  Pine  and  Larch  offer  good 


204  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

simple  morphological  exercises.  Interesting  and  valuable,  too, 
is  the  study  of  wound  healing.1 

Especially  practical  will  work  in  elementary  forestry  prove, 
and  for  the  guidance  of  the  teacher  there  are  good  books.2 

Search  for  signs  of  disease  and  determine  the  causes  as  far 
as  possible  (see  under  Fungi),  whether  animal  or  plant. 

Angiosperms.  —  It  is  obvious  that,  if  any  real  attention  is 
given  to  such  work  as  has  been  suggested  the  time  for  the 
study  of  the  flowers  of  the  higher  plants  will  be  limited.  There 
is  practically  a  choice  between  the  more  thorough  study  of  a 
small  number  of  types  to  be  supplemented,  if  opportunity 
offers,  by  a  more  superficial  identification  of  a  number  of 
others  in  the  field,  and  a  less  thorough  examination  of  a  larger 
number.  I  believe  the  former  the  better,  for  it  will  conduce 
to  greater  interest  and  a  more  searching  attention  on  the  part 
of  the  pupil.  In  order  to  justify  this  part  of  the  work  edu- 
cationally in  a  broad  sense,  the  teacher  must  keep  in  mind 
the  point  of  view  which  has  been  repeatedly  urged.  The 
flower  must  be  chiefly  regarded  as  a  mechanism,  and  its  parts 
must  be  studied,  therefore,  in  their  relation  to  pollination. 
This  should  be  done,  too,  not  in  a  speculative  way,  but  as  far 
as  possible  by  actual  observation  of  the  objects  in  the  field.8 
With  some  experience  of  this  kind,  the  pupil  may  establish 
enough  first-hand  knowledge,  which  may  be  used  in  inter- 
pretation of  peculiarities  of  form  and  development  in  many 
flowers.  The  teacher  will  do  well  to  have  a  small  collection 


1  See  Fernow,  B.  E.,  Age  of  Trees  and  Time  of  Blazing  determined 
by  Annual    Rings.      Circular  16,  Division  of   Forestry,  United   States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  illus.     1898. 

2  Pinchot's  Primer  of  Forestry,  and   Roth's  First  Book  of  Forestry. 
Excellent  monographic  studies  of  the  white  pine  (V.  M.  Spalding)  and 
of  the  timber  trees  of  the    Southern  United  States  have  been  issued  by 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.     The  Wood  Sections  >  sold 
by  R.  B.  Hough  (Lowville,  N.  Y.),  are  very  useful. 

8  A  very  good  chapter  on  the  flower  is  one  in  Stevens's  Introduction 
fa  Botany,  and  excellent  suggestions  for  field  work  are  to  be  found  in 
Andrews's  Botany  all  the  Year  Round.  See  also  MUller's  Fertilization  of 
Flowers. 


DISCUSSION  OF  THE   COURSE  IN  BOTANY     2O$ 

of  good  illustrative  materials l  exemplifying  the  different  types 
of  flowers. 

The  most  difficult  part  of  the  study  of  flowers  to  understand 
is  the  development  of  the  embryo  sac  and  embryo,  and  it  is 
pretty  generally  conceded  that  it  is  beyond  the  scope  of  the 
elementary  student  to  do  more  by  his  own  effort  than  to  get  a 
good  idea  by  means  of  experimental  evidence2  of  the  necessity 
of  pollen.8  The  pollen  itself  may  be  studied  in  germination, 
many  of  the  larger  kinds  producing  tubes  quickly  in  sugar 
solution.  This  must,  however,  be  done  by  way  of  demonstra- 
tion. The  fact  of  alternation  of  generations  may  be  pointed 
out,  and  the  structures  of  the  ovule  and  the  development  of 
the  embryo  explained  by  means  of  diagrams4  and  demon- 
strated by  means  of  preparations.  The  three  types  of  ovules 
(Tulip,  Capsella,  and  Polygonum  are  good  for  anatropous,  cam- 
pylotropous,  and  orthotropous  ovules,  respectively)  may  be 
studied. 

If  a  collection  of  dried  plants  is  required  of  the  pupil,  these 
should  be  very  carefully  prepared,  and  to  this  end  fewer  speci- 
mens should  be  asked  for,  since  it  is  very  much  better  educa- 
tionally to  do  this  well  than  to  gather  together  a  lot  of  poor, 
scrappy  specimens.  Hence  the  motive  for  the  work  must  be 
right,  and  for  suggestions  in  this  direction  I  can  do  no  better 
than  to  refer  the  student  to  the  excellent  essay  of  Ganong 5 
and  to  the  directions  and  suggestions  by  Bailey.6  Far  better 
than  the  usual  method  of  collecting  indiscriminately  a  lot  of 
plants  from  here  and  there,  without  a  directive  idea,  is  to  col- 

1  Various   large    flowers   in   longitudinal   sections,  and   the   various 
structures  taken  separately,  may  be  displayed  in  specimen  jars  affixed 
by  means  of  gelatine  to  a  piece  of  ordinary  glass,  and  preserved   in  5 
percent  formaline,  with  a  little  alcohol  (15  per  cent).     The  structures 
may  then  be  examined  from  either  side. 

2  Thus  it  is  quite  possible  to  pollinate  geranium  flowers  in  the  labo- 
ratory, and  test  the  efficacy  of  pollen. 

3  See  Andrews,  loc.  at.,  pp.  226.     Stevens,  loc.  cit.,  pp.  162-201. 

4  See  Stevens,  loc.  fit.,  pp.  296,  297. 
8   Teaching  Botanist,  pp.  95-118. 

6  Lessons  with  Plants,  pp.  437-444,  especially  the  "  Suggestions." 


206  THE   TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

lect  those  of  a  particular  habitat,  or  those  of  the  same  species 
growing  under  different  environmental  conditions,  or  those 
illustrating  similar  habits  of  activity,  etc.  In  the  case  of  a 
collection  of  different  kinds  of  plants  of  the  more  usual  kind, 
the  pupils  should  at  least  be  required  carefully  to  dissect  the 
flowers,  and  to  arrange  their  parts,  after  they  are  dried,  in 
their  relative  positions,  rather  than  to  resort  to  the  floral  dia- 
gram, which  in  my  experience  is  not  sufficiently  well  compre- 
hended by  the  average  pupil.  Nor  is  it  necessary  to  confine 
the  collection  to  the  higher  plants.  Ferns,  mosses,  liverworts, 
lichens,  algae,  and  fungi,  all  may  be  sought  for  and  preserved, 
and  this  will  prove  the  more  instructive  and  interesting  when 
the  initiative  for  collection  comes  from  the  pupils  themselves. 
The  teacher's  work  is  to  show  them  how  to  collect  intelligently, 
and  get  the  most  out  of  their  collections.  The  best  material 
collected  should,  if  the  pupil  is  willing,  be  properly  labelled 
and  contributed  to  the  museum  collection,  and  the  practice 
of  constantly  eliminating  the  less  instructive  specimens  should 
be  followed.  In  making  the  choice  the  teacher  should  exer- 
cise such  strict  judgment  that  the  pupil  whose  work  is  chosen 
may  feel  it  a  real  distinction  to  be  thus  singled  out.  The 
school  collection  will  in  this  way  be  made  an  especially  fine 
one,  every  specimen  being  as  nearly  perfect  as  it  is  possible 
to  make  it.  More  important  still,  it  should  be  much  used, 
which  is  generally  not  the  case. 

Geographical  Botany  and  Physiographical  Plant  Ecology. 

Within  recent  years  there  has  been  an  increasing  tendency 
to  make  the  elementary  study  of  vegetation  a  part  of  a  course 
of  botany  for  high  schools.  This  is  indicated  by  the  space 
devoted  to  it  in  the  text-books  of  the  last  few  years,  notably 
those  of  Atkinson,  Bergen,  Caldwell,  Bailey,  Coulter,  Clements 
and  Cutter,  Stevens  and  of  Andrews.  The  movement  in  edu- 
cation toward  the  recognition  of  this  part  of  botany  may  be 
referred  to  the  great  activity  among  American  botanists,  and 
indicates  a  commendable  spirit  among  teachers  who  have 


DISCUSSION  OF   THE   COURSE  IN  BOTANY     2O/ 

seized  upon  the  outdoor,  dynamic  phases  of  botany  with 
much  eagerness.  The  attempt  to  gain  recognition  in  this 
direction  has  not  been  wholly  successful,  partly  because 
of  the  inherent  difficulties  of  the  subject-matter  itself,  and 
partly  because  of  the  failure  of  most  teachers  to  manage  with 
young  pupils  such  imperfect  knowledge  as  we  may  be  said  to 
possess. 

It  is  obvious,  for  reasons  elaborated  elsewhere,  that  the 
work  that  is  done  must  be  field  study,  and  of  such  a  kind  that 
it  is  related  to  the  physiology.  It  is,  however,  quite  reason- 
able, and  sound  educationally,  to  give  to  a  class  such  informa- 
tion about  the  chief  types  of  vegetation  as  will  lead  them  to 
appreciate  what  the  appearance  of  these  are.  This  can  be 
based  directly  upon  field  observations ;  for  it  is  seldom  true 
that  the  topography  of  a  given  region  does  not  supply  illustra- 
tions of  all  three  leading  vegetation  types,  —  xerophytic,  hydro- 
phytic,  and  mesophytic.  But  every  teacher  should  know  that 
these  terms  are  very  misleading,  if  they  are  assumed  to  stand 
for  some  rigid  relation  in  the  economy  of  nature.  As  plants 
individually  change,  so  do  plant  associations,  and  it  is  there- 
fore equally  important  to  hold  to  the  dynamic  interpretation 
here  as  elsewhere.  It  is  certainly  good  advice  to  say  that  a 
teacher  ought  to  put  himself  through  a  course  of  training, 
in  fact  make  it  the  hobby  of  the  summer  vacation,  and  work 
over  some  area  before  attempting  to  teach  the  subject.  For 
this  purpose,  it  would  be  a  good  plan  to  take  some  one  of  the 
published  papers  1  and  try  to  repeat  the  study.  This  will  have 
a  very  healthful  effect  in  demonstrating  the  working  value  for 
a  class,  of  this  kind  of  study,  as  well  as  widening  the  horizon 
of  the  teacher.  For  the  reason  that,  as  Cowles  has  well  put 
it,  "  The  facts  of  physiographic  ecology  are  widespread  rather 
than  local,  it  becomes  possible  for  secondary  schools  "  (or  the 


1  For  a  complete  list  of  papers  published  on  North  American  plant 
geography,  see  Cowles,  H.  A.,  Recent  Contributions  to  American 
Phytogeography.  Botanical  Gazette,  24:  383.  November,  1902. 


208  THE   TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

teacher  at  least)  "  to  take  up  local  problems  with  the  assurance 
that  they  will  have  much  more  than  local  importance."  l 

Some  suggestions  for  study  have  already  been  given  in  the 
outline  above  under  the  head  of  ecology.  It  will  hardly  be 
profitable  to  do  here  more  than  to  indicate  to  the  student 
the  best  sources  for  other  suggestions.  By  the  translation  of 
Schimper's  splendid  Pflanzengeographie  it  is  now  possible 
for  the  teacher  to  have  a  thoroughly  first-class  reference  work 
at  hand. 

Andrews,  E.  F.  Botany  all  the  Year  Round,  pp.  248,  249.  Sug- 
gestive of  a  good  method  of  setting  problems,  and  of  questioning. 

Bailey,  L.  H.     Lessons  with  Plants,  pp.  410-414. 

Caldwell,  Otis  W.     A  Laboratory  Manual  of  Botany,  Chapter  IX. 

MacDougal,  D.  T.  The  Nature  and  Work  of  Plants,  Chapter  X.  A 
series  of  very  pertinent  topics,  with  directions  for  study. 


1  Cowles,  H.  A.,  A  Comparison  of  Land  and  Marine  Beeches  as  to 
Ecology  of  the  Vegetation,  School  Review,  10 :  48.  1902.  See  also 
Gloss  (ibid.} ;  Whitford,  H.  N.,  Physiography  and  Botany,  School  Review, 
10 :  45.  January,  1902.  Harshberger,  J.  W.,  Geographical  Biology, 
Education,  14:  513.  April,  1894. 


CHAPTER   IX 

THE    LABORATORY,    ITS    EQUIPMENT.      MATERIALS    FOR 
STUDY   AND    FOR    DEMONSTRATION 

General  Laboratory  Equipment. 

FOR  the  teaching  of  biology  by  proper  methods  a  good 
laboratory  is  a  necessity.  The  character  of  the  desks  and  the 
arrangements  for  seating  and  lighting  of  an  ordi-  LalM)ratorya 
nary  class  room  are  entirely  inadequate  and  may  Necessity, 
be  permitted  only  when  no  other  place  for  work  is  to  be  had. 
A  good  laboratory  is  one  with  good  lighting,  ample  space  for 
comfortable  work,  places  for  storing  the  equipment,  and  room 
for  aquaria  and  vivaria.  I  shall  attempt  in  a  brief  way  to 
point  out  the  most  important  things  to  look  out  for  in  plan- 
ning a  laboratory.  It  will  not  be  necessary  to  give  working 
plans,  since  any  given  problem  will  probably  be  different  from 
all  others.  For  the  convenience  of  any  to  whom  the  task  of 
planning  a  laboratory  falls,  we  append  below  a  list  of  papers 
describing  plans,  from  which  suggestions  may  be  obtained. 

By  far  the  best  illumination  is  obtained  by  a  northerly  ex- 
posure.    If  possible,  all  ordinary  laboratory  work  should  be 

done  by  the  light  of  north  windows,  and  if  this 

Lighting, 
condition  is  attended   to,  the  prime  necessity  is 

fulfilled.  Direct  sunlight  is  an  intolerable  nuisance,  since  it 
cannot  be  used  for  illuminating  the  microscope.  White 
shades  become  necessary,  and  when  these  are  used  on  partly 
cloudy  days  the  light  is  part  of  the  time  too  weak,  and  so  the 
shades  have  to  be  raised  and  lowered  every  few  minutes.  On 
the  whole,  northerly  and  easterly  exposure  are  the  best,  since 
sufficient  direct  sunlight  may  be  had  for  growing  plants  and 

14 

i 


210  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

for  other  purposes  from  the  east  windows,  while  the  north 
windows  may  be  used  as  specified  above.  The  windows 
should  be  amply  large  in  any  case,  but  it  is  impossible  to 
specify  the  size  unless  the  arrangement  for  seating  is  first 
decided  upon. 

In  schools,  where  large  numbers  of  pupils  have  to  be  pro- 
vided for,  the  problems  of  seating  and  table  space  is  a  difficult 
one.  The  most  acceptable  method,  when  space 
is  available,  is  to  have  tables  arranged  with  their 
longer  axes  at  right  angles  to  the  wall,  and  placed  opposite  a 
window.  If  the  longer  sides  of  the  tables  are  oblique,  as 
recommended  by  Bessey,  there  results  a  double  advantage  of 
non-interference  of  light  and  economy  of  floor  space,  matters 
of  prime  importance,  the  former  to  the  pupil,  the  latter  to  the 
teacher.  Few  things  are  so  wearing  on  the  teacher  as  to  have 
to  crowd  between  chairs  in  order  to  get  to  the  individual 
student,  and  V-shaped  tables  obviate  this.  This  arrange- 
ment has  been  found  by  experience  to  be  a  very  satisfactory 
and  comfortable  one.  A  table  with  sides  nine  feet  long,  fifty- 
five  inches  on  the  broad  and  thirty  inches  on  the  narrow  end, 
will  seat  six  or  seven  persons  comfortably.  Four  such  tables 
may  therefore  be  made  to  seat  twenty-eight  persons,  and  five, 
thirty-five  persons,  the  highest  number  that  one  instructor 
should  be  expected  to  handle.  Each  pupil  should  have  at 
least  thirty  inches  of  space  on  the  table  edge.  This  form  of 
table  is  not,  however,  well  adapted  when  the  pupils  have  to 
retain  their  places. for  recitation,  but  this  should  be  avoided 
if  possible.  If  the  room  can  be  planned  so  as  to  leave  beside 
the  working  tables  a  lecture  table  and  seats  for  a  class  of  nor- 
mal size,  this  is  a  much  better  arrangement.  Otherwise  the 
tables  must  be  disposed  so  as  to  get  the  best  illumination 
possible  for  each  of  the  students,  who  by  turning  90  degrees 
or  1 80  degrees  may  then  face  the  teacher,  who  must,  of 
course,  have  a  wall  at  his  back.  In  this  case,  parallel  tables 
twenty  inches  wide,  having  thirty  inches  floor  space  between, 
with  the  pupils  arranged  in  quincunx  order,  are  the  most  eco- 


LABOR  A  TORY  AND  EQUIPMENT  2 1 1 

nomical  of  floor  space.1  Revolving  stools  fixed  to  the  floor 
have  also  this  advantage,  since  chair  backs  occupy  a  good  deal 
of  space.  Stools  should  be  resorted  to,  however,  only  as  a  last 
resource,  since  a  comfortable  seat  is  necessary. 

The  finish  of  the  laboratory  table  tops  is  a  matter  of  impor- 
tance, since  it  must  be  such  as  to  protect  the  wood  from 
damage,  and  keep  it  clean  and  smooth.  Many  prefer  a  black 
finish,  to  obtain  which  the  following  method  gives  good  results. 

Make  up  solutions  : 

(1)  Copper  Sulfate  (CuSO4)     .     .     .  625  grams. 
Potassium  Chlorate  (KC1O3)       .  625       " 
Water  to  make       5  liters. 

(2)  Anilin  Oil 300  grams. 

Hydrochloric  Acid  (HC1)   .     .     .  450       " 

Water  to  make 2500  liters. 

Apply  solution  (i)  followed  immediately  by  (2)  several  times, 
until  the  wood  becomes  dark  green,  allowing  the  applications 
to  dry  each  time.  The  darker  the  tone  reached  the  better. 
The  wood  must  then  be  washed  thoroughly  with  soap  and 
hot  water,  applied  with  a  brush.  This  is  necessary  in  order 
to  remove  the  superfluous  salts.  The  table  is  finished  with  oil 
and  will  then  be  dead  black.2 

For  a  natural  wood  finish,  an  oil  or  paraffin  finish  are  the 
best,  (i)  Boiled  linseed  oil,  with  dryer  in  it,  applied  thickly, 
and  the  superfluous  oil  rubbed  off,  leaves  a  good  surface  resis- 
tant enough  for  ordinary  purposes.  The  tables  should  receive 
an  annual  cleaning  with  sal  soda  and  then  be  re-oiled.  (2) 
Paraffin  (the  hardest  obtainable)  must  be  ironed  into  the 
woodwork  with  a  hot  flat-iron,  and  rubbed  off  with  a  cloth 
while  hot. 


1  I  am  indebted  to  Mr.  J.  E.  Peabody  for  data  of  the  arrangement  of 
the  seats  of  the  Laboratory  of  the  Boys  and  Girls  High  School,  New 
York. 

2  I  am  indebted  to  Dr.  E.  B.  Livingston  for  the  details  of  this  pro- 
cess which  he  has  applied  with  success. 


212  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

Caldwell,  O.  W.  Laboratory  Manual  of  Botany,  New  York,  1902, 
p.  5  (plans  for  laboratory  table). 

Dodge,  C.  W.  Laboratory  Tables.  JOURNAL  OF  APPLIED  MICRO- 
SCOPY, i  :  121,  122.  July,  1898. 

The  teacher's  desk  or  lecture  table  should  be  of  good  size 
(two  feet  six  inches  broad),  solidly  built,  and  provided  with 
Teacher's  drawers  and  cupboards  for  the  equipment  which 
Deskt  is  needed  at  hand.  If  possible  it  should  be  pro- 

vided with  running  water  and  gas.  The  size  of  the  desk 
should  admit  the  setting  up  of  physiological  experiments  to  run 
several  days  and  its  stability,  for  this  purpose,  is  an  obvious 
necessity. 

The  pupil's  equipment  should  be  very  simple,  and  consist 

°f  the  following  : 


1.  A  sharp  penknife  or  scalpel. 

2.  Two  dissecting  needles.     Penholders  with  strong  needles 
pushed  in  eye-end  foremost. 

3.  A  small  pair  of  forceps  (may  be  dispensed  with  if  appro- 
priation is  too  limited). 

If  a  compound  microscope  is  used,  there  will  be  needed  also  : 

4.  Pieces  of  cheapest  filter  paper,  for  taking  up  excess  of 
water  on  preparations. 

5.  Glass  slides  and  cover-glasses;  a  dozen  of  each. 
For  making  laboratory  records  : 

6.  Pencil    (Dixon's   4H,  or  one  of  similar  hardness  and 
quality)  and  paper  for  sketches.     If  sheets  are  used  separately, 
they  should  be  cut  of  uniform  size  with  paper  for  making  notes 
and  doing  essay  work.     These  may  then  be  fastened  together 
in  a  suitable  cover.     A  bond  or  ledger  paper  is  good  for  gen- 
eral laboratory   purposes.     Bound   note-books    are   found   by 
many  teachers  more  satisfactory.     Since  many  times  pupils 
spoil  their  sketches,  these  may  be  made  on  good  paper,  cut 
out  and  pasted  in  in  a  suitable  arrangement.     It  is  generally 
difficult  for  pupils  to  foresee  what  a  page  will  look  like  when 
filled.     A  bad  result  may,  however,  in  this  way  be  avoided. 


LA  BORA  TOR  Y  AND  'EQUIPMENT  2 1 3 

The  wall  behind  the  teachers 'should  have  blackboard  space, 
and  chart  racks  which  may  be  raised  and  lowered.  Simple 
strips  of  light  wood  (two  inches  by  one-half  inch) 
supported  by  firm  cotton  cords  reeved  through 
screw-eyes  answer  every  purpose.  The  curving  of  lower  edges 
of  charts  hung  on  such  a  strip  may  be  prevented  by  attaching 
light  strips  to  them  with  clips.  More  elaborate  racks  hardly 
present  enough  advantage  to  justify  the  extra  expense.  Any 
other  available  wall  space  may  be  utilized  for  the  hanging  of 
charts.  Another  advantage  of  the  light  strip  is  that  it  may 
be  suspended  almost  anywhere  obliquely  across  a  room  corner, 
for  example.  Charts  may  be  suspended  by  some  form  of  clip 
hook. 

A   desideratum    of   great   importance    is    the    provision    of 
storage  room  for  pupils'  materials  and  for  equipment.     For 

each  pupil,  room  for  a  note-book  and  a  few  simple 

,  •  ,    ,       r™  •      ,  •      Storage  of 

implements  must  be  provided.      Inis,  however,  is   Equipment: 

necessary,  in  order  that  much  needed  things,  as 
pencils,  will  be  there  when  wanted.  For  the  purpose,  small 
cloth-covered  pasteboard  boxes  answer  well.  The  name  and 
table  number  of  the  pupil  can  be  printed  plainly  on  a  label, 
and  this  slipped  into  a  thin  brass  label  holder.1  The  boxes 
when  not  in  use  may  be  stacked  on  a  convenient  shelf,  near  the 
entrance  to  the  laboratory,  so  that  the  pupil  may  get  them  on 
entering  and  replace  them  on  retiring.  This  arrangement 
renders  costly  cabinet  work  unnecessary,  and  allows  of  any 
practical  degree  of  expansion. 

It  is  very  necessary  to  keep  the  microscopes  in  a  dust-proof 
closet  under  lock  and  key,  and  it  is  better  to  dispense  with 
the  usual  cases  which  accompany  the  instruments,   Of  Micro- 
an   item    of   expense    which    may  be    saved.     In   scopes- 
order  to  keep  the  instruments  in  good  condition,  it  is  well  to 
keep  them  tagged,  so  that  the  same  persons  will  use  a  particu- 
lar instrument  each  time.     The  source  of  damage  can  thus  be 


1  Obtainable  from  the  Cambridge  Botanical  Supply  Company. 


214  THE    TEACHING    OF  BOTANY 

better  traced.  When  the  number  of  microscopes  is  large  enough 
only  for  their  use  in  demonstration  this  precaution  is  unnec- 
essary. Other  optical  instruments,  such  as  extra  lenses  and 
dissecting  microscopes,  may  be  kept  with  the  microscopes. 

Every  laboratory  should  have  another  storeroom  with  plenty 
of  shelf-room,  for  the  storage  of  glassware,  chemicals,  and 

implements  of  all  kinds,  and  for  plant  and  animal 
Of  Glassware, 

Chemicals,  materials  for  study.  Some  simple  method  of 
Instruments,  .  ._  .„  ,  _  .  , 

and  Ma-  classification  will  be  necessary  and  a  card  index, 

with  a  record  of  cost,  dealer,  and  other  useful  data 
will  be  found  very  useful.  To  get  rid  of  useless  materials  and 
keep  the  rest  clean  and  in  order  is  an  important  rule  applying 
to  a  storeroom.  The  materials  for  study  which  are  kept  in 
fluids  may  be  arranged  in  order  of  use  —  probably  the  best 
way  if  large  numbers  of  pupils  are  to  be  provided  for.  For 
the  same  reason  it  is  better  to  have  in  the  general  stock  an 
abundance  of  the  materials  to  be  used  than  small  amounts  of 
many  kinds,  excepting,  of  course,  for  special  reasons.  In  the 
absence  of  a  stockroom,  cases  or  shelves  in  the  laboratory 
must  be  used. 

Charts  must,  of  course,  be  kept  in  a  suitable  case.  One 
form  suggested  by  Ganong1  consists  of  an  upright  case,  attached 

to  the  wall  and  opening  on  the  front  and  top. 
Of  Charts.  _  •  i  r  e  i  . 

Less  economical  of  space,  but  more  useful,  is  a 

series  of  shallow  drawers,  in  which  the  charts  may  lie  flat  and 
be  more  easily  examined.  Rolled  charts,  such  as  the  Leuckart 
series,  are  kept  most  conveniently  on  end  in  a  rack  or  box. 

Much  plant  material  may  be  kept,  dry,  to  be  soaked  previous 
to  use.  This  may  be  kept  in  envelopes,  loose  or  attached  to 
Dried  Ma-  sheets  of  paper,  and  placed,  according  to  a  system, 
teriais.  jn  pasteboard  filing  boxes,2  or  it  may  be  kept 

on  the  usual  size  of  herbarium  paper,  uniform  with  sheets  of 
flowering  plants.  The  small-sized  ones  are,  however,  easier  to 
handle,  and  the  boxes  can  be  used  for  such  things  as  fungi, 


1  The  Teaching  Botanist,  p.  117. 

2  The  largest  size  made  by  the  Library  Bureau  are  very  good. 


LA  BORA  TOR  Y  AND   EQUIPMENT  2 1 5 

which  refuse  to  be  flattened  out.  And  again  for  general 
school  use,  smaller  herbarium  sheets,  one-half  the  standard 
size  (n^£  by  1 6  24)  are  large  enough. 

For  keeping  living  materials,  stock  aquaria  of  galvanized 
iron  strengthened  with  heavy  wire  made  to  any  size  de- 
sired are  most  useful.  Wire  covers  can  be  made  Living  Ma_ 
to  prevent  the  escape  of  animals.  Strips  of  gal-  terlals- 
vanized  iron  can  be  placed  so  as  to  partition  off  the  interior 
when  necessary.  Battery  jars  are  the  cheapest  form  of  glass 
aquaria,  and  it  is  always  well  to  have  a  good  number  of  these. 
Half-barrels  (oak)  make  fine  aquaria,  especially  for  larger  water 
plants,  fish,  etc.  For  keeping  potted  plants,  etc.,  in  good 
condition,  a  small  conservatory  built  as  a  bay  window1  and 
roofed  with  glass  is  the  best  arrangement.  A  conservatory, 
however,  may  be  built,  against  a  window  or  two,  inside  the 
laboratory,  and  may  be  heated  by  a  small  hot  water  system. 
Some  heating  arrangement  independent  of  the  general  heating 
plant,  is,  of  course,  necessary  if  it  is  desired  to  keep  materials 
growing  in  cold  weather.  A  "Vulcan  "  hot  water  heater2  and 
a  hot  water  radiator  will  keep  up  the  temperature,  which  may 
be  controlled  by  a  Powers  Temperature  Regulator  8  controlling 
the  supply  of  gas.  A  small  pilot  flame  must  be  kept  burning. 
The  "  by-pass  "  of  the  Powers  three-way  cock  may  be  closed 
or  opened,  according  to  the  exigencies  of  the  climate.  When 
this  is  impossible,  a  Wardian  case,  as  described  by  Ganong, 
will  do  good  service.4 

Another  convenience  is  a  dark  room  in  which  physiologi- 
cal experiments  may  be  conducted.  Of  course,  it  is  a  simple 
enough  matter  to  etiolate  plants  under  covers,  but 
it  is  most  valuable,  educationally,  to  be  able  to  run 
experiments  on  growth,  e.  g.,  in  continuous  darkness.  For 

1  See  bibliography  below.     Mast,  S.  O. 

2  Crane  &  Co.,  New  York.     Price  about  $7.00. 

3  The  Powers  Regulator  Co.,  New  York,  in  5th  Ave. ;  Chicago,  40 
Dearborn  St. ;  Boston,  224  Franklin  St. ;  Philadelphia,  922  Real  Estate 
Trust  Bldg. 

4  See  The  Teaching  Botanist,  pp.  83-85. 


2l6  THE   TEACHING    OF  BOTANY 

students  to  be  able  to  go  into  a  dark  room,  and  see  the  plant 
by  a  small  amount  of  illumination,  makes  a  deep  impression 
on  the  mind.  The  same  room  may  be  used  for  photographic 
purposes,  or  better,  if  it  is  large  enough,  may  be  partitioned  off. 
Ventilators  which  will  be  light-tight  should  be  provided.1 

Brooks,  S.  D.  The  Biological  Laboratory  in  the  Small  High  School. 
JOURNAL  OF  APPLIED  MICROSCOPY,  5:  1603-1608.  January,  1902. 

Elliot,  L.  B.  Representative  American  Laboratories.  I.  Cornell 
University.  JOURNAL  OF  APPLIED  MICROSCOPY,  i:  23-32.  February, 
1898. 

Ganong,  W.  F.  The  Teaching  Botanist.  New  York,  The  Mac- 
millan  Co.,  1900.  Pp.  80,  81. 

Ganong,  W.  F.  Plant  Physiology.  New  York,  H.  Holt  &  Co., 
1901.  Pp.  23-30. 

Ganong,  "W.  F.  The  New  Laboratory  and  Greenhouse  for  Plant 
Physiology  at  Smith  College.  SCIENCE,  II.,  15:  933-937.  13  June, 
1902. 

Herrick,  F.  H.  Biological  Laboratory  of  Western  Reserve  Uni- 
versity. JOURNAL  OF  APPLIED  MICROSCOPY,  3:  949-955.  August,  1900. 

Lloyd,  F.  E.  The  New  Laboratory  for  Plant  Physiology  of  the 
Agricultural  Academy  in  Poppelsdorf-Bonn.  JOURNAL  OF  APPLIED 
MICROSCOPY,  5 :  1829-1835.  June,  1902. 

Marsh,  C.  D.  The  New  Biological  Laboratories  of  Ripon  College. 
JOURNAL  OF  APPLIED  MICROSCOPY,  4:  1149-1155.  February,  1901. 

Mast,  S.  O.  The  Description  of  a  New  Biological  Laboratory. 
Proceedings  of  Michigan  Schoolmasters'  Association.  49.  March,  1902. 

McClung,  C.  E.  Laboratory  Equipment  for  beginning  Course  in 
Zoology.  JOURNAL  OF  APPLIED  MICROSCOPY,  5:  1677-1679.  March, 
1902. 

Murbach,  L.  The  Biology  Work  in  the  Detroit  Central  High 
School.  JOURNAL  OF  APPLIED  MICROSCOPY,  a:  425-435.  July,  1899. 

Peabody,  J.  E.  Physiology  in  the  Peter  Cooper  High  School,  New 
York  City.  JOURNAL  OF  APPLIED  MICROSCOPY,  3:  917-932.  July, 
1900. 

Treadwell,  A.  L.  The  Biological  Laboratory  of  Vassar  College. 
JOURNAL  OF  APPLIED  MICROSCOPY,  5:  1717-1725.  April,  1902. 

Woolman,  A.  J.  Laboratories  for  the  Duluth  High  School.  JOUR- 
NAL OF  APPLIED  MICROSCOPY,  2  :  353-359-  May,  1899. 

Wylie,  R.  B.  The  Biological  Laboratories  of  Morningside  College. 
JOURNAL  OF  APPLIED  MICROSCOPY,  5  :  1949-1954.  September,  1902. 


1  Ganong,  W.  F.,  Plant  Physiology,  New  York,  1901,  p.  27.  (A 
good  construction  for  a  dark  room,  which  may  be  modified  to  peculiar 
conditions.) 


LABORATORY  AND  EQUIPMENT  2 1/ 

Other  Laboratory  Equipment. 

Microscopes  should  be  strongly  'made  of  the  Continental  type 
on  account  of  its  solidity  and  simplicity.  Two  objectives  are 
necessary,  one  of  quite  low  power  (two  or  three)  optical  Ap- 
and  one  of  fairly  high  power  (five  to  seven,  pref-  pastas, 
erably  five).  A  nosepiece  will  prevent  loss  of  time,  and  will 
save  wear  and  tear  on  the  lenses,  which  should  be  parfocalized. 
Oculars  one  and  three  will  be  sufficient.  A  coarse  rack  and 
pinion  adjustment  is  also  very  much  to  be  desired,  since  the 
manipulation  of  the  draw-tube  by  hand  leads  often  to  mishap. 
This,  of  course,  heightens  the  cost.  From  twenty-five  to  thirty 
dollars  will  provide  a  suitable  instrument.  A  japanned  base 
keeps  a  good  clean  appearance  the  longest.  A  large  mirror, 
revolving  diaphragm,  and  fine  adjustment  conclude  the  neces- 
sary specifications. 

Magnifying  glasses  of  an  amplification  of  ten  diameters,  on 
a  suitable  stand  as,  e.  g.,  the  Barnes  dissecting  stand,  are  of 
constant  value.  Three-legged  affairs  are  troublesome.  A 
good  lens  (achromatic,  with  a  large  flat  field)  is  worth  the 
cost,  which  is  not  great. 

A  camera  lucida  is  found  by  some  teachers  to  be  a  valuable 
aid  in  teaching,  since  the  teacher  can  make  a  quick  sketch  of 
any  object  being  studied,  for  control  of  the  class  work.1 

A  horizontal  microscope  is  useful  but  not  a  necessity.  A 
very  good  one  is  made  by  Leitz.  One  may  be  improvised  by 
fixing  an  ordinary  tube  to  a  retort  stand. 

The  outfit  of  a  good  laboratory  should  include  also  a  small 
paraffin  oven  and  a  microtome.  The  latter  need  not  be  of 
the  expensive  type.  The  teacher  should  be  able  to  make 
hand  sections  of  much  of  the  material  used,  but  a  microtome 
will  often  be  found  useful. 

Charts  are  exceedingly  valuable  helps  in  teaching  if 
properly  used,  but  the  amount  of  dependence  placed  on 


1  Bergen,  J.  Y.,    Teachers' Handbook,  p.  19.     Boston,  1901 


218  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

them  will  vary  with  the  teacher.  A  well-made,  attractive 
chart  can  hardly  fail  to  arouse  and  to  keep  interest.  In 
elementary  work'  those  which  show  developmental 
stages  are  especially  valuable.  But  no  set  of  charts 
which  will  be  found  in  the  market  will  be  likely  to  meet  all  the 
peculiar  needs  of  individual  teachers,  and  at  any  rate,  teachers 
ought  not  to  have  to  depend  on  them.  Especially  should 
money  not  be  wasted  on  charts  of  things  so  simple  that  a  few 
strokes  of  the  crayon  will  duplicate  them  —  and  every  teacher 
should  have  facility  in  the  use  of  the  chalk  and  blackboard,  and 
he  should  be  able  to  make  special  charts  for  himself  when  he 
may  need  them.  The  series  of  charts  (approximately  size,  84 
by  68  cm.),  which  can  be  bought  and  which  are  here  recom- 
mended, are  the  following : 

1.  The  Kny  Series  of  160.  Cost,  320  marks,  unbacked. 

2.  The  Errera-Laurent  Series  of  15.    Cost,  40  marks,  unbacked. 

3.  The  Frank-Tschirch  Series  of  60.  Cost,  180  marks,  unbacked. 

4.  The  Peter  Flower  Series  of  50.     Cost,  125  marks,  unbacked. 

Series  i,  2,  and  4  are  the  most  valuable.  They  should  be 
ordered  through  dealers,  and  should  be  backed  with  cloth  in 
Germany,  as  it  can  be  done  there  more  cheaply  and  better. 

"  Home-Made  "  Charts  always  mean  more  to  the  teacher 
and  can  be  made  at  small  cost.  The  materials  which  may  be 
used  areas  follows:  Black  "pattern  paper"  ($3.25  per  roll, 
three  hundred  yards),  using  chalk  for  lining,  fixing  the  same 
with  gum  mastic. l 

Muslin,  common  unbleached  or  roller  shade  cloth,  or  detail 


1  Harshberger,  J.  W.,  Natural  History  Charts  and  Illustrations. 
Education,  7:  493.  April,  1899.  See  also  Heald,  H.  P.,  A  Method 
of  Making  Biology  Wall  Charts.  Journal  of  Applied  Microscopy,  4:  1172. 
February,  1901.  Tracy,  M.,  A  Simple  Method  of  Making  Wall  Charts. 
Journal  of  Applied  Microscopy,  6:  2114.  January,  1903.  Bessey,  C.  E., 
Home-Made  Wall  Charts.  Journal  of  Applied  Microscopy \  4:  II9$» 
March,  1901. 


LABORATORY  AND  EQUIPMENT  2ig 

paper,  with  lines  of  paraffin  pencil  in  various  colors.  Oil 
colors  may  be  applied  to  the  cloth  if  preferred.  A  much 
more  refined  material  is  muslin-backed  drawing  paper.  The 
lines  may  be  made  with  marking  pens,  using  waterproof  ink, 
and  water  colors  may  be  applied.  Cheap  and  effective 
when  they  are  made  on  unbleached  muslin,  they  are  prac- 
tically indestructible  and  require  no  particular  care  in  han- 
dling. I  have  some  charts  which  were  made  by  this  method 
in  1893,  which  are  as  good  as  new  to-day.  An  arrangement 
for  illustrating  the  structure  of  flowers  as  represented  in  floral 
diagrams  is  made  by  cutting  pieces  of  colored  card  into 
diagrammatic  shapes.  These  may  be  attached  upon  a  piece 
of  soft  board,  painted  black,  in  the  relative  positions  by  means 
of  thumb  tacks. 

Frost,  W.  D.    A  Rack  for  Exhibiting  Charts.    JOURNAL  OF  APPLIED 
MICROSCOPY,  5:  1993,  1994.     October,  1902. 
Ganong,  W.  F.     Teaching  Botanist,  p.  86. 

Of  certainly  equal  value  with  charts  are  large  photomicro- 
graphs, which  have  the  advantage  of  appearing  much  as  the 
original  object  does  to  the  eye.  They  are,  therefore,  often  a 
very  great  help  in  enabling  the  teacher  to  clear  up  misunder- 
standings arising  from  the  inability  of  the  pupils  to  interpret 
what  is  seen  in  the  microscopic  field.  They  are,  however, 
rather  expensive.  The  best  made  are  those  by  Samuel  F. 
Tower,  purchasable  through  Ginn  &  Co.,  $2.75  each.  A  list 
of  these  may  doubtless  be  had  on  application.  A  partial  list 
may  be  found  in  Bergen's  Teachers'"  Handbook. 

A    stereopticon    is    a  most  useful    piece   of  apparatus   for 
the   cursory  study  of  general    matters.      An   occasional   talk 
of  general  interest,  illustrated  with   good  lantern   projection 
slides,  is  an  educational  treat  which  can  be  made   tw***** 
to  do  good   service.     The  danger  of  overdoing  the   lantern 
business  is  one  which  every  sensible  teacher  will  beware  cf ; 
but  there  can  be  no  harm  and  often  much  good,  accruing 
from    a   judicious    use    of  optical  projection.     One  point  of 


220  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

importance  educationally  is  that  the  teacher  himself  should 
manipulate  his  slides,  standing  by  his  apparatus,  and  becom- 
ing, as  it  were,  a  part  of  the  audience.  He  has  in  this  way  an 
additional  point  of  advantage  of  being  in  a  good  place  to 
manage  his  class.  Of  very  great  value,  also,  is  the  use  of 
microscopic  projection,1  but  this  will  generally  be  beyond  the 
limits  and  possibilities  of  most  teachers. 

Lantern  slides  are  sold  by :  Wm.  H.  Knapp,  Bausch  and 
Lomb  Optical  Co.,  Chicago,  111.  A  set  of  twenty-five,  of 
excellent  quality,  in  box,  $12  net;  W.  B.  McCallum  (Depart- 
ment of  Botany,  University  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  111.)  and  S.  M. 
Coulter  (Shaw  School  of  Botany,  St.  Louis,  Mo.)  at  a  cost  of 
$17  the  set  of  fifty,  or  three  sets  for  $50.  Six  sets  are  offered, 
each  on  one  of  the  following  topics  :  General  morphology, 
general  ecology,  physiographic  ecology,  general  physiography, 
pollination,  types  of  trees. 

The  apparatus  needed  for  elementary  plant  physiology  con- 
sists of  set  pieces  of  apparatus  and  of  general  glassware,  tools, 
•etc.  It  is  quite  unnecessary  here  to  indicate  the 
for  Plant  latter  in  detail.  An  examination  of  a  modern 
text-book  will  generally  be  sufficient  (see  bibli- 
ography below).  As  to  the  set  pieces,  the  problem  is  rather 
more  difficult.  Fortunately  these  are  few  in  number,  a  clino- 
stat  and  an  auxanometer  being  the  principal  ones.  The  forms 
of  these  articles  at  present  on  the  market  may  be  purchased 
through  general  dealers,  and  from  Stoelting  (see  list).  I  am 
informed  that  some  pieces,  designed  by  Ganong,  are  soon  to 
be  placed  on  sale.  A  modified  form  of  an  auxanometer  of  my 
own  will  also  soon  be  purchasable  from  the  "  Home-Made  " 
Apparatus  Co.  A  set  of  double-walled  bell  jars  is  also  very 
desirable.  For  small  colored  light  chambers  see  Ganong, 
Plant  Physiology,  p.  109. 

The  following  references  will  be  found  useful,  especially  to 
the  teacher  who  is  inclined  to  put  together  apparatus  himself : 

1  See  Cole,  A.  H.,  The  Projection  Microscope  —  Its  Possibilities  and 
Value  in  Teaching  Biology.  Proc.  N.  E.  A.  1902.  771-778. 


LABORATORY  AND   EQUIPMENT  221 

Arthur,  J.  C.     BOTANICAL  GAZETTE,  22 :  463-472.    1896. 

Ganong,  W.  F.     BOTANICAL  GAZETTE,  27  :  255.     1899. 

Ganons,  W.  F.  Plant  Physiology  for  the  High  School.  SCHOOL 
SCIENCE,  IF.,  3  :  382.  January,  1904,  et  al. 

Ganong,  W.  F.     A  Laboratory  Course  in  Plant  Physiology. 

Ganong,  "W.  F.     The  Teaching  Botanist. 

Lloyd,  F.  E.  A  New  and  Cheap  Form  of  Auxanometer.  TORREYA, 
3:  97-100.  July,  1903.  SCHOOL  SCIENCE,  3:  345.  December,  1903. 

MacDougal,  D.  T.     Elementary  Plant  Physiology. 

Murback,  L.  A.  Simple  Auxanometer.  SCHOJL  SCIENCE,  2:  346. 
December,  1902. 

Reed,  Howard  S.  Methods  in  Plant  Physiology.  JOURNAL  OF 
APPLIED  MICROSCOPY,  Vols.  V.  and  VI. 

Richards,  H.  M.  A  Modified  Form  of  Respiration  Apparatus. 
TORREYA,  i  :  28.  March,  1901. 

Stone,  G.  E.  Botanical  Appliances.  BOTANICAL  GAZETTE,  22:  258. 
September,  1896. 

Stone,  G.  E.  Physiological  Appliances.  TORREYA,  4 :  1-5.  Jan- 
uary, 1904. 

Dealers  in  Microscopes  and  General  Supplies. 

ARTHUR,  J.  C.  Purdue  University,  Lafayette,  Ind.  Apparatus  for 
Plant  Physiology,  described  in  Botanical  Gazette,  22:  463-472. 

BAUSCH  &  LOMB  OPTICAL  Co.,  Rochester,  N.  Y.  Manufacturers  of 
microscopes,  and  dealers  in  general  laboratory  supplies. 

CAMBRIDGE  BOTANICAL  SUPPLY  Co.,  Cambridge,  Mass.  All  kinds 
of  supplies  useful  to  botanists.  Plant  materials. 

DRURY,  Miss  E.  M.,  45  Munroe  St.,  Roxbury,  Mass.  Photomicro- 
graphs, microscopic  preparations. 

EIMER  &  AMEND,  New  York,  N.  Y.  Chemical  Supplies,  glassware. 
General  importers. 

THE  "HOME-MADE"  SCIENTIFIC  APPARATUS  Co.,  Mechanicsburg, 
Ohio.  Simple  apparatus  for  physiology,  etc.,  including  a  cheap  form  of 
auxanometer  designed  after  a  model  by  Lloyd. 

ITHACA  BOTANICAL  SUPPLY  Co.,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.  Plant  materials  ; 
microscopic  preparations. 

KNY-SCHEERER  Co.,  225  4th  Ave.,  New  York,  N.  Y.  General 
dealers  and  importers.  Natural  history  materials  ;  living  plants. 

KRAFFT,  WM.  41 1  West  59th  St.,  New  York  ;  Boston  ;  Chicago.  Im- 
porters of  Leitz  microscopes,  and  of  general  laboratory  supplies. 

QUEEN  &  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa.  Dealers  in  general  laboratory 
supplies. 

SPENCER  LENS  Co.,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.     Microscopes. 

C.  H.  STOELTING  Co.,  35  W.  Randolph  St.,  Chicago,  111.  Auxa- 
nometer, clinostat. 

THORBURN,  J.  M.  &  Co.,  36  Cortland  St ,  New  York  City.     Seeds. 


THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

TOWER,  S.  F.,  Boston  English  High  School,  Boston,  Mass.  Photo- 
micrographs. 

WALMSLEY,  FULLER  &  Co.,  134-136  Wabash  Ave.,  Chicago,  111. 
Photomicrographs. 

WHITALL,  TATUM  &  Co.,  New  York,  N.  Y.     Glassware. 

WILLIAMS,  BROWN  &  EARLE,  Philadelphia,  Pa.  Beck  microscopes, 
general  supplies. 

The  Preservation  of  Plant  Material  for  Laboratory  Use. 

For  the  purposes  of  elementary  work,  the  preservation  of 
materials  is  quite  simple,  and  does  not  in  the  least  involve  the 
more  elaborate  methods  of  the  advanced  botanist.  It  is  there- 
fore my  purpose  here  to  mention  the  ordinarily  useful  methods. 
If  special  methods  are  needed,  directions  may  be  found  in  the 
literature  which  is  readily  available.  Chamberlain's  book,  men- 
tioned below,  will  meet  special  requirements. 

Some  materials  may  be  preserved  dry,  in  the  same  manner 
as  herbarium  specimens,  and  when  moistened  are  perfectly 
satisfactory.  A  general  rule  to  follow  in  pressing  such  plants 
as  may  be  treated  in  this  way  is  to  apply  as  light  a  weight  as 
possible,  the  object  being  to  preserve  the  material  in  good 
condition,  in  a  dry  state,  rather  than  to  press  it,  so  as  to 
make  flat  herbarium  specimens.  Specimens  which  receive 
this  treatment  will  expand  well  if  soaked  in  water  over  night, 
or  if  boiled,  the  former  being  the  better  plan.  Very  small 
plants,  such  as  mosses,  liverworts,  and  many  fungi,  will  expand 
fully  in  a  few  minutes.  On  account  of  its  simplicity  as  well 
as  economy,  this  method  is  recommended  as  especially  avail- 
able for  those  who  do  not  have  funds  at  their  disposal. 
Even  flowers  and  fruit  may  be  managed  in  this  way,  and 
although  fresh  materials  are  always  to  be  preferred,  and  used 
whenever  possible,  the  teacher  will  always  do  well  to  have  a 
good  stock  of  materials  on  hand.  This  of  course  is  especially 
true  of  the  lower  forms,  which  are  less  likely  to  be  obtained 
fresh  when  wanted. 

Other  plants  may  be  kept  in  living  condition.  Outside  of 
various  house  plants,  including  ferns,  which  get  along  fairly 


LABORATORY  AND  EQUIPMENT  22$ 

well  indoors,  water  plants,  including  algae,  may  be  kept  in 
aquaria.  Some  mosses,  selaginellas,  fern  prothallia,  etc.,  will 
grow  well  if  the  air  about  them  is  kept  moist  by  means  of 
glass,  and  if  they  are  well  drained,  which  is  of  very  consider- 
able importance.  For  this  purpose  charcoal  answers  the  best. 
If  pots  are  used,  they  should  be  half  filled  with  coarsely 
broken  bits  of  charcoal.  This  preserves  the  looseness  of  the 
soil,  and  does  not  allow  it  to  get  soggy  with  water. 

For  preserving  the  natural  form  and  appearance  (color  often 
excepted)  of  plants  or  plant  parts,  the  most  useful  fluid  is  a 
formalin  solution.  This  is  a  one  per  cent  to  five  per  cent 
solution  of  the  commercial  formaldehyd  in  water,  and  serves 
well  for  all  ordinary  purposes.  Three  per  cent  and  five  per 
cent  solutions  are  most  commonly  used. 

A  solution  of  formalin,  one  per  cent,  and  chrome  alum,  one 
per  cent,  in  water  is  especially  good  for  algse,  sea-water,  of 
course,  being  used  for  marine  forms.  It  is  also  recommended 
for  flowers,  as  it  does  not  make  them  brittle. 

For  very  delicate  plants,  especially  those  with  large  size 
and  little  substance,  such  as  fungi,  the  addition  of  glycerine 
to  raise  somewhat  the  specific  gravity  of  the  fluid,  is  some- 
times an  advantage,  as  it  buoys  up  the  specimens. 

Alcohol  would  better  be  used  for  hardening  and  preserving 
materials  for  anatomical  work.  A  strong  (80  to  95  per  cent) 
mixture  with  water  is  necessary. 

List  of  Materials  and  Method  of  Preservation. 

Myxomycetes.  —  Living  Plasmodium,  on  decaying  wood, 
kept  dark  and  moist,  not  wet.1  Sporangia  dry,  pinned  to 
bottoms  of  boxes  (e.  g.,  cigar  boxes  with  cork  fastened  to 
the  bottom). 

Algcz.  —  Marine  algae  in  chrome-alum-formalin  solution 
made  up  with  sea-water.  For  fresh-water  algae  the  same  made 
up  with  fresh-water.  Many  blue-green  algae,  diatoms,  desmids, 
and  other  green  algae  may  be  grown  in  aquaria.  Usually  they 

1  Macbride,  T.  H.,  The  Slime  Moulds.     Rhodora,  April,  1900. 


224  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

must  not  be  allowed  too  much  sunlight.  Keep  cool  as  pos- 
sible. Aquaria  always  do  better  if  covered  with  glass.  Mate- 
rials to  show  special  points  (e.  g.,  conjugation  in  Spirogyra) 
should  be  kept  on  hand  in  preservatives. 

Fungi.  —  All  the  smaller  kinds  may  be  kept  dry,  but  this 
of  course  does  not  need  to  apply,  in  practice,  to  the  moulds 
which  grow  abundantly  on  decaying  substances  (bread,  toma- 
toes, etc.).  The  larger  fleshy  forms  are  readily  preserved  in 
formalin.  Woody  fungi  are  kept  dry. 

For  preserving  soft  fleshy  fungi,  as  recommended  by  B.  O. 
Longear : l 

1.  Alcohol  i  part,  water  2  parts. 

2.  Formalin  i  part,  water  10-20  parts. 

This  for  firmer  kinds.  Does  not  succeed  so  well  with  the 
softer  ones. 

Bryophyta  (Mosses  and  Liverworts).  —  Plants  bearing 
gemmae  (  Georgia  pellucida,  Scapania,  Marchantia,  Lunularia, 
etc.)  are  better  kept  in  formalin.  Other  material  may  be  kept 
dry.  Soak  mosses  over  night  preferably.  A  few  moments 
boiling  drives  out  air.  Lactic  acid  is  especially  good  for 
clearing  temporary  mounts  for  microscopic  examination. 

Pteridophyta.  —  Many  hardy  ferns  and  Selaginella^  may  be 
grown ;  or  fresh  materials  may  be  obtained  from  florists.  Lyco- 
podium  and  Equisetum  may  be  kept  dry.  Prothallia  may  be 
grown. 

Gymnospermce.  —  The  young  and  immature  cones,  both  male 
and  female,  are  best  preserved  in  alcohol,  since  the  resin  is  not 
soluble  in  watery  solutions.  Formalin  may  be  used  and  the 
material  placed  for  a  while  in  alcohol  previous  to  use. 

Ripened  cones  are  kept  dry  for  the  purposes  of  elementary 
study.  The  cones  of  some  species  of  Fir  (Abies)  are  the 
best.  Failing  these  any  of  the  other  forms  will  answer ;  and 
the  larger  they  are  the  better.  Fresh  foliage  material  should 
always  be  used,  if  possible. 

1  Some  suggestions  for  the  beginner  in  collecting  and  studying  fleshy 
fungi.  Journal  of  Applied  Microscopy,  6:  2369.  June,  1903. 


LABORATORY  AND  EQUIPMENT  22$ 

Angiosperma.  —  For  the  study  of  the  flower,  fresh  material 
should  always  be  used  so  far  as  possible.  It  is  more  attractive 
and  easier  to  manage.  Nevertheless,  a  stock  of  preserved 
material  should  be  kept  on  hand.  For  preserving,  formalin 
one  per  cent,  with  chrome  alum  one  per  cent. 

Material  for  the  anatomical  study  of  the  leaf,  stem,  etc.,  are 
best  preserved  in  alcohol,  or  if  in  formalin  they  must  be 
hardened  in  alcohol  before  sections  are  cut. 

Seeds  are,  of  course,  kept  dry.  Young  and  nearly  mature 
stages  of  the  fruit  should  also  be  kept  in  formalin.  Mature 
fruits,  dry. 

Bergen,  J.  Y.  TEACHERS'  HANDBOOK.  (To  accompany  the  FOUN- 
DATIONS OF  BOTANY.)  Ginn  &  Co.,  Boston.  1901. 

Caldwell,  Otis  W.  Suggestions  to  Teachers.  (Designed  to  accom- 
pany Plant  Structures.)  New  York.  D.  Appleton  &  Co.  1900.  Pp. 
1-26. 

Chamberlain,  C.  J.     METHODS  IN  PLANT  HISTOLOGY. 

Harshberger,  J.  "W.  Home  and  School  Window  Gardens.  EDUCA- 
TION, 18  :  555.  May,  1898. 

Dealers  in  Plant  Materials. 

THE  CAMBRIDGE  BOTANICAL  SUPPLY  Co.,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

ITHACA  BOTANICAL  SUPPLY  Co.,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

GALEN,  JAMES.  Bon  view,  Pa.,  R.  Y.  D.,  No.  i.  Cable  address, 
McCall's  Ferry,  Pa.  Twigs,  wild  plants,  seeds,  etc. 

KNY-SCHEERER  Co.,  225  Fourth  Ave.,  New  York.  (Will  supply 
living  materials  within  suitable  limits  of  distance  at  very  reasonable 
rates.)  i. 

Materials  for  Demonstration. 

No  teacher  can  afford  to  depend  solely  upon  the  materials 
which  the  pupil  himself  handles.  It  is  impossible  for  him  to 
use  but  a  very  small  part  of  the  available  material.  His  direct 
observation  may,  however,  be  very  greatly  widened,  by  the  use 
of  a  well-selected  collection  of  specimens,  properly  mounted 
and  arranged  so  as  to  illustrate  definite  points.  It  is  well  to 
include  in  such  a  collection  even  those  materials  which  the 
pupils  use,  so  they  may,  if  necessary,  supplement  their  work. 

15 


226  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

Museum  materials  for  demonstration  can  be  made  of  very  great 
value,  too,  in  the  presentation  of  various  topics,  and  should  be 
fully  drawn  upon. 

Demonstration  specimens  may  be  preserved  in  fluids,  or  dry, 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  materials.  It  is,  of  course, 
wasteful  to  use  fluids  and  glassware,  when  the  dry  material  is 
just  as  good. 

Particularly  instructive  are  series  of  developmental  stages. 
The  specimens  are  properly  arranged,  surface  water  removed, 
and  affixed,  by  means  of  a  thick  gelatine  solution  used  warm, 
to  a  piece  of  picture  glass,1  which  has  been  cut  to  fit  the  glass 
jar  to  be  used.  As  soon  as  the  gelatine  hardens  the  whole  is 
plunged  into  the  fluid.2  If  no  more  gelatine  has  been  used 
than  is  necessary,  it  will  hardly  be  noticed  at  all,  so  that  the 
specimens  may  be  viewed  from  either  side  of  the  glass  with 
equal  facility.  Even  such  small  objects  as  prothallia,  Selagi- 
nella  embryos,  and  the  like  can  be  so  managed,  and  beautiful 
illustrative  preparations  be  made.  The  following  are  suggested 
as  a  useful  list  of  such  preparations  : 

Developmental  (germination)  series  of  pea,  bean,  castor- 
oil,  squash,  Indian  corn,  date,  onion,  and  of  the  fruits  of  these, 
including  a  series  of  the  ear  of  Indian  corn.  A  partly  germi- 
nated cocoanut  to  show  the  large  haustorium  is  a  very  instruc- 
tive preparation.  Series  of  fruits  for  comparative  morphology 
of  the  receptacle,  e.  g.y  rose  (cultural  varieties),  raspberry, 
strawberry,  the  fig ;  some  of  the  larger  compositae,  etc.  Series 
of  fleshy  fruits,  e.  g.,  pepper,  tomato,  cucumber,  etc.  Also 
types  of  flowers  which  show  the  more  striking  adaptations  for 
cross  pollination  by  insect  agency.  These  should  be  cut  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  show  the  flower  in  longitudinal  section, 
or  in  some  other  desired  way.  Plants  with  thick  parts,  or 
forms  which  lose  their  shape  or  instructive  appearance  if  dry 
or  under  pressure.  Root  systems,  showing  root  tubercles  of 
some  typical  leguminous  forage  plants. 

1  Opaque  glass,  black  or  white,  is  seldom  to  be  preferred. 

2  Formalin  5  per  cent,  alcohol  1 5  per  cent  in  water. 


LABORATORY  AND  EQUIPMENT  22/ 

Many  kinds  of  plants,  however,  show  their  general  features 
quite  well  as  herbarium  specimens,  if  carefully  prepared,  and 
when  this  is  true  they  may  be  attached  to  herbarium  sheets, 
or,  still  better,  to  cards,  which  may  be  covered  with  glass  or, 
better,  with  transparent  xylonite,1  and  bound  with  passe- 
partout strips.  The  xylonite  is  practically  indestructible,  and 
is  stiff  enough  to  protect  the  specimens.  Any  number  of 
duplicates  of  suitable  subjects  may  be  made  up  on  a  uniform 
size  of  card,  and  these  can  often  be  used  in  the  laboratory 
for  the  pupils'  study,  especially  when  large  classes  are  to  be 
provided  for.  The  specimens  may  be  labelled  if  desired, 
or  if  to  be  used  as  laboratory  material,  left  unlabelled,  but 
provided  with  an  index  number.  In  most  cases  I  prefer  not 
to  label  parts,  but  rather  to  make  use  of  them  as  problems. 
Full  labelling  has  its  place  in  public  museums,  but  may  be 
easily  made  to  defeat  the  aims  of  the  laboratory.  The  kinds 
of  specimens  which  show  up  well  mounted  in  this  way  are 
those  which  show  leaf  homologies,  climbing  organs,  and  so 
on;  seedlings  to  show  ontogenetic  leaf  series,  or  different 
forms  of  cotyledons ;  thin  parts  of  plants  showing  parasitic 
fungi,  lichens,  algae,  and  bryophytes  (though  these  are  better 
treated  as  below). 

Then,  too,  if  herbarium  sheets  are  to  be  handed  around  a 
class  for  demonstration,  they  may  be  placed  in  a  cover  made 
of  a  stiff  card  and  xylonite,  which  will  serve  to  protect  the 
specimens  from  damage ; 2  such  a  cover  is  lighter  than  one  in 
which  glass  is  used,  and  is  practically  unbreakable.  Some 
specimens  can  be  best  mounted  in  glycerine  jelly,  either 
between  sheets  of  glass  or  between  glass  and  xylonite,  or 
between  two  sheets  of  xylonite  bound  with  passe-partout 
paper.  I  have  used  for  two  years  a  large  thin  transverse 


1  The  kind  I  have  used  is  described  thus  :  Color,  No.  301 ;  Thickness, 
I  Finish,  AA.     Obtainable  from  the  Celluloid  Company,  30  to  36 

Washington  Place,  New  York.     A  sheet  20  by  49  inches  costs  $1.20. 

2  For  further  suggestions  as  to  the  kinds  of  collections  to  make  for 
these  purposes,  see  Ganong,  The  Teaching  Botanist. 


228  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

section  of  sugar-cane  mounted  between  pieces  of  xylonite  for 
demonstration  and  it  remains  in  good  condition.  It  may  be 
viewed  either  with  the  naked  eye  or  with  a  magnification 
of  three  hundred  diameters  with  sufficient  clearness  to  see 
details.  A  preparation  of  this  kind  may  be  bent  considerably 
without  damaging  the  specimen.  Mosses  and  liverworts  may 
be  similarly  treated.  Microscopic  preparations  of  the  rough 
sort,  say  of  stem  sections,  when  cytological  details  are  not 
desired,  may  be  covered  with  thin  xylonite,  such  as  is  used  for 
photographic  films.  This  method  obviates  the  usual  break- 
age of  cover  glasses,  and  the  xylonite  is  better  than  mica 
optically,  and  is  not  so  easily  damaged  by  splitting.  Much 
may  be  said,  also,  in  favor  of  glycerine  jelly  as  a  mounting 
medium  for  demonstration  preparations,  instead  of  balsam, 
since  this  hardens  and  becomes  brittle.  In  some  cases  when 
the  tissue  is  very  delicate,  it  cannot  be  used,  nor  is  anything 
but  glass  suitable  for  covering.  It  is  obvious  that  any  method 
of  saving  time,  energy,  and  material  from  breakage  is  of  great 
value  when  large  numbers  of  pupils  are  involved. 

This  method  is  especially  valuable  for  thin  specimens  of 
some  delicacy,  the  parts  of  which  curl  when  dry,  as  e.  g.,  mosses, 
liverworts,1  fern  leaves,  to  show  different  forms  of  sori  and  in- 
dusia,  many  sections,  etc. 

A  more  elaborate  method  of  mounting  herbarium  material, 
adaptable  especially  to  making  attractive  museum  specimens, 
is  by  means  of  the  Riker  Natural  Science  Mount,  obtainable 
from  The  Sydney  Ross  Company,  48  Vesey  St.,  New  York, 
from  whom  a  descriptive  price-list  may  be  obtained. 

Ganong,  W.  F.     The  Teaching  Botanist. 

Lloyd,  F.  E.  Handling  Herbarium  Specimens  in  Classes.  TOR- 
REYA,  2:  40.  March,  1902. 

Richards,  H.  M.  New  Methods  of  Drying  Plants.  TORREYA,  x  : 
145.  December,  1901. 

Stone,  G.  E.  Formaline  as  a  Preservative  of  Botanical  Specimens. 
JOURNAL  OF  APPLIED  MICROSCOPY,  2 :  537.  1899. 

1  Sphagnum,  e.  g.t  must  be  mounted  in  fluid  in  a  bottle  for  best 
results. 


CHAPTER   X 

BOTANICAL   LITERATURE   FOR    THE    USE    OF   TEACHERS 
AND    STUDENTS 

THE  following  lists  of  books  have  been  arranged  with  refer- 
ence to  their  most  apparent  usefulness,  and  include  the  most 
important  of  those  published  in  the  English  language.  Books 
in  other  languages  have  usually  been  omitted.  Some  are  out 
of  print,  but  are  mentioned  because  of  their  value.  Such, 
for  example,  is  von  Sachs'  Physiology  of  Plants. 

The  chief  purpose  in  giving  this  bibliography  is  to  direct 
the  attention  of  the  intending  teacher  to  the  modern  literature 
bearing  closely  upon  the  teaching  of  botany  with  which  he 
should  be  conversant.  It  represents,  also,  a  good  working 
collection  of  books.  A  smaller  number  which  at  the  same 
time  would  answer  well  for  a  school  library  is  indicated  by 
asterisks.  Naturally  the  choice  of  taxonomic  works  will 
depend  upon  locality. 

Abbreviations. 

Al.  Allyn  &  Bacon,  Boston,  Mass. 

Am.  American  Book  Co.,  New  York. 

Ap.  D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  New  York. 

B.  Baker  &  Taylor,  New  York. 

Clar.  Clarendon  Press,  Oxford,  England. 

G.  Ginn  &  Co.,  Boston  and  New  York. 

H.  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  New  York. 

Ho.  H.  Holt  &  Co.,  New  York. 

K.  Knight  &  Millet,  Boston,  Mass. 

L.  Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  New  York. 

M.  The  Macmillan  Co.,  New  York. 

Pr.  Preston  &  Rounds  Co.,  Providence,  R.  I. 


230  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 


Text  and  Laboratory  Books  for  Students'  Use. 

*Atkinson,  Q.  F.    Elementary  Botany.    Ho.    1898.    23  -f  444.    $1.25. 
Atkinson,  G.  F.     Lessons  in  Botany.    Ho.     1900.     15  +  365.    $1.12. 
Atkinson,  G.  F.     First  Studies  of  Plant  Life.    G.    1902.     12  +  266. 
6oc. 

*Andrews,  E.  F.     Botany  all  the  Year  Around.     Am.    302.     1903. 
$1.00. 

Bailey,  L.  H.     Lessons  with  Plants.     M.     1898.     31  +  491.    $1.10. 
*Barnes,  C.  B.      Plant  Life,  Considered  with  Special  Reference  to 
Form  and  Function.     Ho.     1898.     10  +  428.     $1.12. 

Barnes,  C.  B.     Outlines  of  Plant  Life.    Ho.    1900.    6  +  308.    $1.00. 
Bergen,  J.  Y.      Elements  of  Botany.     G.     1896.    8  +  275.     $1.10. 
With  flora  of  North  and  Middle  States.     57  pages. 

*Bergen,  J.  Y.     Foundations  of  Botany.     G.    1901.    10  +  257.    With 
flora.     $1.50. 

*Bessey,  C.  E.    The  Essentials  of  Botany.    Ho.    1896.    7  +  356.   $1.12. 
*Caldwell,  Otis  W.     A  Laboratory  Manual  of  Botany.     Ap.      1902. 
9  +  107.     5oc. 

Clark,   C.   H.      A   Laboratory  Manual  of   Practical  Botany.     Am. 
1898.     271.    96c. 

Campbell,  D.  H.     Elements  of  Structural  and  Systematic  Botany  for 
High  Schools  and  Elementary  College  Courses.     G.     253.     $1.12. 
Gray,  Asa.     How  Plants  Behave.     Am.     1875.     8  +  4&     54C- 
Gray,  Asa.     Lessons  in  Botany.     Am.     1875.     I2  +  236-     94C. 
Hunter,  G.  W.,  Jr.,  and  Valentine,  M.  C.    Ho.    1903.    7+215.    6oc. 
Leavitt,  B.  G.     Outlines  of  Botany  for  the  High  School  Laboratory 
and  Class  Room.     Am.     1901.     6+272.     $1.00.     With  Flora,  $i. 80. 

Macbride,   T.    H.      Lessons  in  Elementary  Botany  for    Secondary 
Schools.     Al.     1896.     11  +  233.     8oc- 

*MacDougal,  D.  T.      The  Nature  and  Work  of   Plants.     M.     1900. 
17  +  218.    8oc. 

Pepoon,  Mitchell  and  Maxwell.     Studies  of  Plant  Life.     H.     1900. 
12  +  95.     5OC- 

Bobison,  C.  H.      Outlines   for  Field    Studies   of   Common  Plants. 
Published  by  the  Author,  Oak  Park,  111.     1902.     39.     25c. 

Setchell,  W.  A.     Laboratory  Practice  for  Beginners  in  Botany.     M. 
1897.     14  +  199.     9oc. 

*Stevens,  W.  C.     Introduction  to  Botany.     H.     1903.     With  Flora, 
$1.50 ;  without  Flora,  10  +  436,  $1.20. 

Reference  Books  for  Students. 

*Bailey,  L.   H.      Botany.     An   Elementary  Text-book.      M.      1900. 
14  +  356.    $1.10. 

Bailey,  L.  H.     Lessons  with  Plants.     M.     1899.     491.     $1.10. 
Beal,  W.  T.     Seed  Dispersal.     G.     1898.     89.     350 


BOTANICAL  LITERATURE  231 

Clements,  F.  E.,  and  Cutter,  I.  S.  A  Laboratory  Manual  of  High 
School  Botany.  University  Publishing  Co.,  Lincoln,  Neb.  1900.  4  + 
123.  75c. 

Conn,  H.  W.  Bacteria,  Yeasts,  and  Molds  in  the  Home.  G. 
1903.  6  +  293.  $1.00. 

Coulter,  J.  M.     Plant  Relations.     Ap.     1899.     7  +  264.     $1.10. 

Coulter,  J.  M.     Plant  Structures.     Ap.     1900.     9  -f-  348.     $1.20. 
*Coulter,  J.  M.     Plants.     A  Text-book  of  Botany.     Ap.     1900.    7  + 
348.     $1.80. 

Coulter,  J.  M.     Plant  Studies.     Ap.     1901.     9  +  392.    $1.25. 

Macmillan,  C.  Minnesota  Plant  Life.  Minnesota  Survey  Botany. 
Series  III.  1899.  25  +  568. 

*Pinchot,  G.  A  Primer  of  Forestry.  Part  I.  The  Forest.  BULLE- 
TIN, No.  24,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington, 
Government  Printing  Office.  1900.  88  pages. 

Sargent,  P.  L.  Corn  Plants.  Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.  1899. 
5+  106.  75c. 

Education  and  Method  of  Thought. 

Cramer,  F.  The  Method  of  Darwin.  Chicago,  A.  C.  McClurg  & 
Co.  1896.  $1.00. 

Elliot,  C.  W.  Educational  Reform.  The  Century  Co.,  New  York. 
1898.  9  +  418.  $2.00. 

Ganong,  W.  F.  The  Teaching  Botanist.  M.  1899.  11  +  270. 
$1.10. 

Huxley,  T.  H.  Science  and  Education.  Volume  III.  of  his  Collected 
Essays.  Ap.  $1.25. 

James,  W.     Talks  to  Teachers  on  Psychology.     Ho.     301.     $1.50. 

Mivart,  St.  J.  The  Groundwork  of  Science.  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons. 
New  York.  1898.  18  +  328.  $1.75. 

Pearson,  K.     Grammar  of  Science.     M.     1900.     18  +  548.     $2.50. 

Spencer,  Herbert.  Education:  Moral,  Physical,  and  Intellectual. 
Ap.  283.  $1.25. 

Spencer,  Herbert.  Principles  of  Biology.  Ap.  1901.  Vol.  I.,  12  + 
706.  Vol.  II.,  12  +  663.  $4.00. 

Natural  History  of  Plants.     Evolution. 

Arthur,  J.  C.,  and  MacDougal,  D.  T.  Living  Plants  and  Their 
Properties.  B.  1898.  9+234.  $1.25. 

Bailey,  L.  H.     The  Survival  of  the  Unlike.     M.    2d  ed.    1897.     515. 

$2.00. 

*Bailey,  L.  H.  Plant  Breeding.  Third  edition.  M.  1904.  13  + 
334.  $1.00. 

*Campbell,  D.  H.  The  Evolution  of  Plants.  M.  1899.  8  +  319. 
$1.25. 

de  Candolle,  A.    Origin  of  Cultivated  Plants.    Ap.     1886.     10  +  468. 

$2.00. 


232  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

Darwin,  Charles.  The  Effects  of  Cross  and  Self  Fertilization  in  the 
Vegetable  Kingdom.  Ap.  $2.00. 

*Darwin,  Charles.  Different  Forms  of  Flowers  on  Plants  of  the 
Same  Species.  Ap.  $1.50. 

*Darwin,  Charles.     The  Origin  of  Species.     Ap.     $2.00. 
*Darwin,  Charles.     Insectivorous  Plants.     Ap.     $2.00. 
*Geddes,   P.      Chapters   in  Modern  Botany.     Scribner.     1893.     201. 
$1.25. 

Haberlandt.  Eine  botanische  Tropenreise.  Leipzig.  Engelmann. 
1893.  9-25  marks. 

*Kerner-Oliver.  Natural  History  of  Plants.  Ho.  1896.  4  volumes, 
$15.00.  1903.  2  volumes,  $11. oo. 

Lubbock,  John.  Flowers,  Fruits,  and  Leaves.  M.  147.  1884. 
$1.25- 

Lubbock,  John.  On  Buds  and  Stipules.  London,  Kegan  Paul, 
Trench,  Triibner  &  Co.  1899.  15  +  247.  $2.00. 

Lubbock,  John.  British  Wild  P'lowers  in  Relation  to  Insects.  M. 
1893.  16+  194-  $1-25- 

Muller,  H.  The  Fertilization  of  Flowers.  Translated  by  Thomp- 
son. M.  1883.  10  +  669.  2  is. 

*Schimper,  A.  F.  W.  Plant  Geography  upon  a  Physiological  Basis. 
Translation  by  Fisher.  Clar.  1903.  30  +  839.  4  volumes,  $12.00. 

Thomson,  J.  A.  Science  of  Life.  Herbert  S.  Stone,  New  York. 
1899.  10  +  246.  $1.25. 

Wallace,  A.  B.     Darwinism.     M.     1889.     494.     $2.25. 

Books  on  Taxonomic  Botany  (for  Teachers). 

Beal,  W.  H.     Grasses  of  North  America.     Ho.     2  volumes,  $7.50. 

Britton,  N.  L.  Manual  of  the  Flora  of  the  Northern  States  and 
Canada.  Ho.  1901.  10  +  1080.  $2.25. 

Britton,  N.  L.,  and  Brown,  A.  An  Illustrated  Flora  of  the  North- 
ern United  States,  Canada,  etc.  Scribner.  3  volumes,  index,  $10.00. 

Chapman,  A.  "W.  Flora  of  the  Southern  United  States.  Am. 
$4.00. 

Coulter,  J.  M.  Manual  of  the  Botany  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  Re- 
gion. Am.  16  +  453.  $1.62. 

Eaton,  D.  C.    The  Ferns  of  North  America.    K.    2  volumes,  $40.00. 

Engler  and  Prantl.  Natuerliche  Pflanzenfamilien.  16  volumes  (yet 
incomplete),  $75.00  (about).  Leipzig.  Engelmann. 

Gray,  Asa.  Manual  of  the  Botany  of  the  Northern  United  States. 
Am.  $1.62. 

Gray,  Asa.     Field,  Forest,  and  Garden  Botany.     Am.    $1.80. 

Greene,  E.  L.  Manual  of  the  Botany  of  the  Region  of  San  Fran- 
cisco Bay.  San  Francisco,  Cubery  &  Co. 

Grout,  A.  J.  Mosses  with  a  Hand  Lens.  Published  by  the  Author, 
360  Lenox  Road,  Brooklyn,  New  York  City,  n  +  74.  $1.10. 


BOTANICAL   LITERATURE  233 

Grout,  A.  J.  Mosses  with  a  Hand  Lens  and  Microscope.  Part  I. 
Ditto.  86.  $1.00. 

Howell,  T.  Flora  of  Northwest  America.  Portland,  Ore.  Published 
by  the  Author. 

Macbride,  T.  H.  The  North  American  Slime  Moulds.  M.  1899. 
17  +  231.  $2.25. 

Murray,  George.  An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Sea-Weeds.  M. 
16  +  271.  $1.75. 

Schneider,  A.    A  Guide  to  the  Study  of  Lichens.    K.    1904.    12  -J-  234. 

Small,  J.  K.  Flora  of  the  Southeastern  United  States.  1903.  10  + 
I37°-  $3-6o.  Published  by  the  author,  New  York  Botanical  Garden, 
Bronx  Park,  New  York. 

Underwood,  L.  M.  Our  Native  Ferns  and  Their  Allies.  Ho.  1900. 
10  +  158.  $1.00. 

Underwood,  L.  M.  Moulds,  Mildews,  and  Mushrooms.  Ho.  1899. 
5  +  236.  $1.50. 

Waters,  C.  E.  Ferns.  A  Manual  of  the  Northeastern  States.  Ho. 
1903.  362  pages.  $3.00. 

Warming,  E.  A  Handbook  of  Systematic  Botany.  Translated  by 
Potter.  M.  1895.  12  +  620.  $3.75. 

Wettstein,  R.  von.     Jena.     G.  Fischer.     1898. 

Laboratory  Guides,  Technique  (for  Teachers). 

Arthur,  J.  C.,  Barnes,  C.  R.,  and  Coulter,  J.  M.  Handbook  of 
Plant  Dissection.  Ho.  11  +  256.  $1.20. 

Bailey,  W.  W.  Botanical  Collector's  Handbook.  14  +  139.  G.  A. 
Bates,  Salem,  Mass.  1881.  75c. 

Bower,  F.  O.  A  Course  of  Practical  Instruction  in  Botany.  M. 
$2.60. 

*Chamberlain,   C.  J.     Methods,  in  Plant  Histology.      Chicago.     The 
University  of  Chicago  Press.     1901.     8  +  159.     $1.50. 

Groom,  Percy.  Elementary  Botany.  London.  G.  Bell  &  Co.  1898. 
10  +  252.  goc. 

Huxley,  T.  H.,  and  Martin,  H.  N.  A  Course  of  Elementary  In- 
struction in  Practical  Biology.  279.  M.  $2.60. 

Johnston,  A.  Botany.  A  Concise  Manual  for  Students  of  Medicine 
and  Science.  Ap.  1891.  14  +  260.  $1.75. 

JOURNAL  OF  APPLIED  MICROSCOPY.  6  volumes,  1898-1903  (now 
discontinued).  Rochester,  N.  Y. 

Poulsen,  D.  A.,  and  Trelease,  W.  Botanical  Micro-Chemistry.  S.  E. 
Cassino  &  Co.,  Boston.  1884.  18  +  118.  $1.00. 

'  *Spalding,  V.  M.      A   Guide  to  the  Study  of  Common  Plants.     H. 
1894.     23  +  246.     8oc. 

Strasburger,  E.,  and  Hillhouse,  W.  Practical  Botany.  M.  1889. 
24  +  425.  $2.60. 

^Zimmerman,  A.     Botanical  Microtechnique.     Translated  by  Hum- 
phrey.    Ho.     1893.     I2  +  29°^     $2-5°- 


234  THE   TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

Books  on  Plant  Physiology  (for  Teachers). 

Davenport,   C.  B.      Experimental  Morphology.     M.     Vol.  I.     1897. 
14  +  280.     $2.60.     Vol.  IE.     1899.     18+588.     $2.00. 
*Darwin,  Charles.     The  Power  of  Movement  in  Plants.     Ap.     $2.00. 
*Darwin,  Charles.    Movements  and  Habits  of  Climbing  Plants.     Ap. 
$2.00. 

Darwin,  F.,  and  Acton,  E.  H.     Practical  Physiology  of  Plants.     M. 
1895.     19  +  326.     $1.25. 
*Detmer,  W.     Practical  Plant  Physiology.    Translated  by  Moor.     M. 

1898.  19  +  555.     $3.00. 

*Ganong,  W.  F.  A  Laboratory  Course  in  Plant  Physiology  espe- 
cially as  a  Basis  for  Ecology.  Ho.  1901.  6  +  147.  $1.50. 

Goodale,  G.  L.    Physiological  Botany.    Am.     1885.     21  +  499  +  36. 
$2.00. 

*Green,  J.  Reynolds.  An  Introduction  to  Vegetable  Physiology. 
J.  &  A.  Churchill,  London.  1900.  20  +  459.  $4.00. 

Green,  J.   Reynolds.      Soluble   Ferments   and   Fermentation.     M. 

1899.  14  +  480.     $3.00. 

Haberlandt,  G.  Physiologische  Pflanzenanatomie.  Leipzig.  Engel- 
niann.  1896.  550. 

*MacDougal,  D.  T.  Text-Book  of  Plant  Physiology.  L.  1901  14. 
+  352.  $3.00. 

MacDougal,  D.  T.  Elementary  Plant  Physiology.  L.  1902.  11  + 
134.  $1.20. 

*Pfeffer,  W.  The  Physiology  of  Plants.  Translated  by  Ewart.  Ox- 
ford. Clar.  Vol.  I.  1900.  12  +  362.  $7.00. 

Sachs,  J.  von.  Lectures  on  the  Physiology  of  Plants.  Translated 
by  Ward.  Clar.  1887.  14  +  836. 

*Sorauer,  P.  A  Popular  Treatise  on  the  Physiology  of  Plants. 
Translated  by  Weiss.  L.  1895.  10  +  256.  $3.00. 

Verworn,  M.  General  Physiology.  Translated  by  Lee.  M.  1899. 
16  +  615.  $4.00. 

Vines,  S.  H.  Lectures  on  the  Physiology  of  Plants.  M.  1886. 
10  +  710.  $5.00. 

"Ward,  Marshall.  Timber  and  Some  of  its  Diseases.  M.  1889. 
8  +  295.  $1.50. 

General  Texts  —  Anatomy  and  Morphology. 
Atkinson,  G.  F.     The  Study  of  the  Biology  of  Ferns  by  the  Collo- 
dion Method.     M.     1894.     12  +  132.    $2.00. 

*de  Bary,  A.  Comparative  Anatomy  of  the  Vegetative  Organs  of 
Phanerogams  and  Ferns.  Translated  by  Bower  and  Scott.  Clar.  1884. 
16  +  659.  $5.50. 

*de  Bary,  A.  Comparative  Morphology  and  Biology  of  the  Fungi. 
Mycetozoa  and  Bacteria.  Translated  by  Garnsey  and  Balfour.  Clar. 
1887.  10  +  525.  $5.50. 


BOTANICAL  LITERATURE  235 

Bennett,  A.  W.,  and  Murray,  G.      A  Handbook  of  Cryptogamic 
Botany.     L.     1889.     8  +  473-    $5.00. 

Bessey,  C.  B,.     Botany  for  High  Schools  and  Colleges.     Ho.     1885. 
10  +  611.     $2.20. 

Bonnier  et  du  Sablon.     Cours  de  Botanique.     P.  Dupont,  Paris  (not 
yet  complete). 

Campbell,  D.  H.     The  Structure  and  Development  of  the  Mosses 
and  Ferns.     M.     1895.     6  +  544.    $4.50. 

*Campbell,  D.  H.  A  University  Text-Book  of  Botany.  M.  1902. 
IS  +  579-  $4-oo. 

*Coulter  and  Chamberlain,  C.  J.  Morphology  of  the  Spermato- 
phytes.  Vol.  I.  (Gymnosperms).  Ap.  1901.  10+188.  $1.75.  Vol.11. 
(Morphology  of  the  Angiosperms).  Ap.  1903.  10  +  348. 

Curtis,  C.  C.     Text-Book  of  General  Botany.     L.     1897.     8  +  359. 
#3-00. 

Farmer,  J.  B.      A  Practical  Introduction  to  the  Study  of   Botany. 
L.     1899.    8  +  274. 

*Goebel,  K.  Organography  of  Plants.  Part  I.  translated  by  Balfour. 
Clar.  1900.  16+270.  $3.10. 

*Goebel,  K.  Outlines  of  Classification  and  Special  Morphology  of 
Plants.  Translated  by  Garnsey  and  Balfour.  Clar.  1887.  12  +  515. 


Gray,  Asa.     Structural   Botany.      Part  I.  of  Gray's  Botanical  Text- 
Book.     Am.     12  +  442.     $2.00. 

Gregory,  Emily  L.     Elements  of  Plant  Anatomy.     G.    1895.     8  + 
148.     $1.25. 

*Strasburger,  E.,  Noll,  F.,  Schenck,  H  ,  and  Schimper,  A.  F.  W.  A 
Text-Book  of  Botany.  Translation  of  5th  German  edition.  M.  1903. 
5  +  671.  $5.00. 

Scott,  D.  H.     An  Introduction  to  Structural  Botany.     M.     1894.     2 
parts  (Flowering  Plants,  288,  and  Cryptogams,  312),  each  $r.oo. 

Vines,  S.  H.     A  Students'  Text-Book  of  Botany.     M.     1886.     16  + 
821.     $3.75. 

Vines,  S.   H.      An   Elementary  Text-Book  of  Botany.     M.     1898. 
$2.25. 

Westermaier,  M.     Compendium  of  General  Botany.     Translated  by 
Schneider.     John  Wiley  &  Son,  New  York.     1896.     10  +  299.    $2.00. 

History  of  Botany. 

*Sachs,  Julius  von.  History  of  Botany.  Translated  by  Garnsey  and 
Balfour.  Clar.  1890.  15  +  563.  $2.50. 

Botanical  and  General  Periodicals. 

BRYOLOGIST.     Illustrated  bi-monthly.     100  pages,  #1.00.     78  Orange 
St.,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.     Mosses,  Liverworts,  Lichens. 


236  THE    TEACHING   OF  BOTANY 

*BOTANICAL  GAZETTE.  Illustrated  monthly.  900  pages,  $5.00.  Uni- 
versity of  Chicago  Press,  Chicago,  111. 

BULLETIN  OF  THE  TORREY  BOTANICAL  CLUB.  Illustrated  monthly, 
700  pages,  $3.00.  Columbia  University,  New  York. 

FERN  BULLETIN.  Illustrated  quarterly.  100  pages,  75c.  Bingham- 
ton,  N.  Y. 

NATURE  STUDY.  Illustrated  monthly.  150  pages,  5oc.  Manches- 
ter, N.  H. 

*PLANT  WORLD.  Illustrated  monthly.  300  pages,  $1.50.  P.O.Box 
334,  Washington,  D.  C.  Official  Organ  of  the  Wild  Flower  Preserva- 
tion Society  of  America.  A  department  for  teachers  in  botany. 

RHODORA.  Illustrated  monthly.  250  pages,  $1.00.  150  Commercial 
St.,  Boston,  Mass. 

*SCHOOL  SCIENCE.  Illustrated  monthly.  550  pages,  $2.00.  Ravens- 
wood,  Chicago,  IH.  Especially  for  secondary  science  teachers. 

SCIENCE.  Weekly.  2000  pages,  $5.00.  Official  Organ  of  the  Amer- 
ican Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  of  which  the  dues  are 
$3.00  annually. 

TORREYA.  Illustrated  monthly.  200  pages,  $1.00.  Torrey  Botan- 
ical Club,  Columbia  University,  New  York. 


THE  TEACHING  OF  ZOOLOGY 

INCLUDING 

HUMAN   PHYSIOLOGY 
IN   THE   SECONDARY    SCHOOL 

BY  MAURICE  A.  BIGELOW,  PH.D. 

ADJUNCT   PROFESSOR  OF  BIOLOGY  IN  TEACHERS  COLLEGE,  COLUMBIA 
UNIVERSITY 


Prefatory  Note 


NUMEROUS  important  problems  relating  to  the  teaching  of 
zoology  in  the  secondary  school  are  still  unsolved,  and  concern- 
ing these  there  is  wide  divergence  of  the  opinions  held  by 
teachers  who  are  specialists  in  this  science.  As  to  the  method 
of  teaching  zoology,  there  is  general  agreement  that  the  modern 
laboratory  practice  is  all-essential,  but  with  regard  to  the  special 
application  of  this  there  are,  as  we  shall  see,  differences  of 
opinion.  But  the  greatest  uncertainty  is  concerning  the  subject- 
matter  to  be  taught,  and  on  this  point  there  is  far  wider  dis- 
agreement than  in  the  case  of  any  other  science  commonly 
taught  in  high  schools.  In  the  last  ten  years  great  changes 
in  subject-matter  content  have  been  made,  but  general  agree- 
ment seems  more  distant  than  ever  and  further  changes  are 
inevitable.  In  short,  zoology  for  secondary  schools  must  on 
the  whole  be  regarded  as  still  in  an  undeveloped  state. 

In  dealing  with  the  many  problems  of  secondary-school 
zoology,  the  writer  is  conscious  of  not  having  succeeded  in 
keeping  his  personal  opinions  in  the  background.  However, 
it  has  been  attempted  in  all  cases  to  give  reasons  in  justification 
for  the  position  taken  on  debatable  questions,  and  to  examine 
in  all  fairness  the  opposition  views.  Even  with  all  possible 
care  in  examining  the  pros  and  cons  of  propositions  it  is  not 
to  be  supposed  that  final  conclusions  can  be  drawn  from  mere 
discussions.  There  is  a  vast  difference  between  the  theory  and 
the  practice ;  and  in  the  light  of  new  experience  the  writer 
himself  will  in  the  future  undoubtedly  revise  some  opinions 
which  from  the  present  viewpoint  seem  best.  All  that  can 
be  claimed  for  the  present  chapters  is  that  they  aim  to  present 


240  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

the  teaching  of  zoology  in  secondary  schools  as  variously  prac- 
tised at  the  present  time  and  attempt  to  point  out  those  things 
which  seem  to  lead  the  way  towards  greater  efficiency  and 
uniformity  for  the  future. 

The  fields  of  zoology  and  botany  are  so  closely  allied  that 
in  considering  some  fundamental  questions  this  second  part 
of  the  volume  undoubtedly  repeats  in  essentials  discussions 
which  in  Part  I  refer  directly  to  botany.  Such  repetition 
seems  unavoidable  if  the  teaching  of  zoology  is  to  be  given 
unity  and  breadth  in  treatment.  Aside  from  consultation 
regarding  general  outlines,  the  two  parts  of  the  volume  have 
been  written  quite  independently ;  and  hence  the  apparent 
repetition  in  certain  parts  will  have  the  advantage  of  affording 
the  possibility  of  comparison  from  the  viewpoints  of  specialists 
in  botany  and  zoology  respectively.  Moreover,  it  has  seemed 
best  to  discuss  with  special  reference  to  zoology  certain  topics, 
particularly  in  Chapter  I,  which  in  terms  of  science  in  general 
have  been  discussed  in  the  first  chapter  of  the  preceding  part 
of  this  volume.  Finally,  there  is  special  justification  for  any 
slight  overlapping  in  that  very  many  teachers  who  use  one  part 
of  this  volume  may  not  be  specially  interested  in  the  com- 
panion part,  and  therefore  each  part  should  aim  to  be  as  com- 
plete as  possible  in  itself. 

The  writer  acknowledges  great  indebtedness  to  his  wife, 
Anna  N.  Bigelow,  whose  criticisms  and  suggestions,  based  on  a 
personal  experience  in  teaching  biology  in  both  school  and 
college,  have  in  no  small  measure  influenced  many  parts  of  this 
work. 


The 

Teaching  of  Zoology  in  the 
Secondary  School 


CHAPTER   I 

THE  EDUCATIONAL  VALUE  OF  ZOOLOGY  AND  THE  AIMS 
OP  ZOOLOGICAL  TEACHING  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Bessey,  C.  E.  Science  and  Culture.  Proceedings  National  Educa- 
tional Association,  1896,  pp.  934-942. 

Eliot,  C.  W.  Essay :  What  is  a  Liberal  Education  ?  In  Educa- 
tional Reform  (New  York,  1898).  Value  of  Natural  Science  on  pp.  109- 
112.  Also  in  CENTURY  MAGAZINE,  N.  s.,  Vol.  VI.,  pp.  203-212.  June, 
1894. 

Forbes,  S.  A.  Pedagogical  Contents  of  Zoology,  pp.  28-78,  in 
Educational  Papers  by  Illinois  Science  Teachers  (Peoria,  111.,  1891). 
Also  in  EDUCATIONAL  REVIEW,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  328-336.  1891. 

Ganong,  "W.  F.  Essay :  The  Place  of  the  Sciences  in  Education  and 
of  Botany  among  the  Sciences.  In  The  Teaching  Botanist.  New  York, 
Macmillan.  1899. 

Geikie,  Sir  Archibald.  Science  in  Education.  POPULAR  SCIENCE 
MONTHLY,  Vol.  LIV.,  pp.  672-686.  March,  1899.  Also  in  NATURE, 
Vol.  LIX.,  pp.  108-112.  June,  1899. 

Harvey,  N.  A.  The  Pedagogical  Content  of  Zoology.  Proceedings 
of  National  Educational  Association.  1899.  Pp.  1106-1112. 

Huxley,  T.  H.  Science  and  Education  Essays.  New  York,  Apple- 
ton  On  the  Educational  Value  of  Natural  History  Sciences  (1854). 
On  the  Study  of  Biology  (1876).  On  the  Elementary  Instruction  in 
Physiology  (1877).  On  Science  and  Culture  (1880). 

Jordan,  D.  S.  Science  in  the  High  School.  POPULAR  SCIENCE 
MONTHLY,  Vol.  XXXVI.,  pp.  721-727.  April,  1890. 

Mill,  John  Stuart.  Inaugural  Address  at  University  of  St.  Andrews 
(1867).  Quoted  by  Youmans  in  Culture  Demanded  by  Modern  Life 
(See  below.) 

Mann,  Horace.  The  Study  of  Physiology.  Sixth  (1842)  Report  of 
Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Education  of  Massachusetts.  Also  in  Vol.  III., 

16 


242  THE   TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

pp.  129-229,  of  Life  and  Work  of  Horace  Mann.  Boston,  Lee  &  Shep- 
ard.  1891.  Also  in  COMMON  SCHOOL  JOURNAL,  Vol.  V.,  pp.  229-352. 
Boston,  1843. 

Mivart,  St.  G.  The  Groundwork  of  Science,  A  Study  of  Epistem- 
ology.  London,  Bliss,  Sands  &  Co.  New  York,  Putnam.  1898. 

Paget,  J.  On  the  Importance  of  the  Study  of  Physiology.  A  Lec- 
ture before  Royal  Institution  of  Great  Britain.  Reprinted  in  Culture 
Demanded  by  Modern  Life.  Edited  by  E.  L.  Youmans.  New  York. 
Appleton.  1867.  Pp.  149-184. 

Payne,  Joseph.  Lecture  on  The  True  Foundation  of  Science  Teach- 
ing (1872).  In  Lectures  on  the  Science  and  Art  of  Education.  Amer- 
ican edition,  Kellogg  &  Co.,  New  York.  1887. 

Pearson,  Karl.  Grammar  of  Science.  Second  edition,  London, 
A.  &  C.  Black.  1899.  (The  first  chapters  touch  upon  the  educational 
value  of  science  in  general.) 

Sedgwick,  W.  T.  Educational  Value  of  the  Methods  of  Science. 
EDUCATIONAL  REVIEW,  Vol.  V.,  pp.  243-256.  March,  1893. 

Spencer,  Herbert.  Education  :  Intellectual,  Moral,  and  Physical. 
London,  Williams  &  Norgate.  New  York,  Appleton.  1861.  (See 
chapter  on  "  What  Knowledge  is  of  Most  Worth  ?  ") 

Thomson,  J.  Arthur.  Study  of  Animal  Life.  Third  Edition.  New 
York,  Scribner.  (See  Appendix  I  b.) 

"Wilson,  E.  B.  Aims  and  Methods  of  Study  in  Natural  History. 
SCIENCE,  N.  s.,  Vol.  XIII.,  pp.  14-23.  January  4,  1901. 

Youmans,  E.  L.,  Editor.  Culture  Demanded  by  Modern  Life.  New 
York,  Appleton.  1887.  (A  collection  of  essays  and  addresses  by 
prominent  men  of  science  and  education.) 

The  teacher  will  first  be  interested  in  the  essays  by  Huxley,  Spencer, 
Eliot,  and  Forbes. 

THE  place  of  natural  science  in  education  has  been  well  advo- 
cated by  many  excellent  essays  with  which  there  is  now  general 
Science  in  agreement  in  both  theory  and  practice,  and  it  may 
Education.  seem  unnecessary  to  attempt  again  a  review  of  the 
aims  and  value  of  any  particular  science,  such  as  zoology. 
Time  was,  in  the  earlier  days  of  Huxley,  Spencer,  and  other 
great  leaders  of  scientific  education,  when  it  was  necessary  to 
emphasize  the  aims  and  value  of  sciences  for  the  purpose  of 
gaining  their  recognition  in  educational  systems ;  but  these 
pioneers  in  scientific  education  presented  the  claims  of  science 
so  convincingly  that  it  has  come  to  be  generally  recognized  as 
an  absolutely  essential  part  of  education. 

But  aside  from  attempting  to  give  further  support  to  the 


THE  EDUCATIONAL    VALUE   OF  ZOOLOGY    243 

right  of  any  science  in  educational  curricula,  frequent  consider- 
ations   of   its   educational    contents    are   certainly 

,  Importance  of 

profitable  in  that  they  tend  to  keep  the  attention  Discussions  of 

of  teachers  centred  upon  the  great  essential  facts  contents  of 
and  principles  as  viewed  from  the  combined  stand- 
points of  science  and  education.  This  leads  the  way  towards 
organized  instead  of  lawless  and  haphazard  teaching  into  which 
science  has  often  drifted  in  the  past ;  and,  therefore,  consider- 
ations of  any  science  in  its  educational  aspects  are  certainly 
important  in  advancing  its  influence  in  education.  The  present 
state  of  advancement  of  science  teaching  is  due  largely  to  the 
fact  that  science  has  slowly  entered  every  phase  of  education, 
every  advance  being  made  only  by  definite  and  decisive  results 
which  have  gained  for  the  sciences  recognition  of  their  impor- 
tance in  education.  It  has  therefore  been  the  good  fortune, 
not  the  misfortune  as  it  has  often  seemed,  that  it  has  been 
necessary  to  demonstrate  the  value  of  sciences  in  order  to  gain 
their  admission  as  essentials  in  all  education.  Other  subjects 
have  for  a  long  time  held  their  place  in  the  educational  systems 
through  the  power  of  historical  associations,  and  without  a 
question  as  to  their  value,  but  sciences  have  been  introduced 
and  will  remain  in  general  education  only  on  the  basis  of 
demonstrable  results  of  superior  quality.  Herein  should  lie 
the  source  of  a  powerful  stimulus  towards  the  development 
of  the  highest  possible  efficiency  in  science  teaching,  and  to 
this  end  it  is  well  that  from  time  to  time  science  teachers 
should  renew  the  critical  examination  of  the  educational  value 
and  aims  of  the  science  which  they  teach  ;  it  is  in  this  way  that 
we  can  estimate  progress,  perhaps  discover  evidence  of  some 
retrogression,  and  establish  a  definite  goal  towards  which  future 
advances  will  be  directed.  It  seems  clear,  then,  that  renewed 
discussions  of  the  educational  contents  of  any  science  have 
their  justification  aside  from  defending  the  place  of  that  science 
in  education. 

But  with  the  educational  value  of  science  in  general  we  are 
not  here  directly  concerned.     For  the  purpose  of  this  chapter 


244  THE   TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

it  will  be  taken  for  granted  that  science  is  generally  recognized 
by  educators  as  deserving  a  place  in  general  education.  The 
arguments  pro  and  con  have  been  written  often  and  the  reader 
is  referred  to  the  writings  of  prominent  men  of  science  and 
education,  some  of  the  best  of  which  are  mentioned  in  the  list 
of  references  accompanying  this  chapter. 

It  is  the  primary  purpose  of  this  chapter  to  re-examine  the 
question  of  the  educational  value  of  zoology  in  order  to  lay 
The  Aim  of  down  some  principles  for  guidance  in  our  later 
this  Chapter.  djscussjOns  of  tne  teaching  of  zoology,  particularly 
in  secondary  schools.  Obviously  many  of  the  arguments  for 
the  value  of  zoology  might  with  slight  modifications  apply  to 
science  in  general,  but  it  seems  more  profitable  to  limit  the 
following  discussion  closely  to  the  science  with  which  we  shall 
deal  in  later  chapters. 

For  the  purpose  of  later  application  it  will  be  most  profitable 
to  consider  the  value  of  zoology  in  general  education  from  two 

standpoints,  namely,  (i)  its  value  as  discipline,  and 
Educational 

Value  of  Zool-  (2)  its  value  as  information  :  and  finally  at  the  end 
ogy  as  Disci-  .  ,  .  ,  . 

piine  and  as  of  this  chapter  it  will  be  attempted  to  deduce  from 
Information.  .  ,  .  .  _  ...  .  .  .. 

the  educational   contents   of  zoology  the   leading 

aims  which  should  govern  the  teaching  of  the  science  in  the 
secondary  school. 

I.   The  Value  of  Zoology  as  Discipline.1 

The  disciplinary  value  of  the  study  of  zoology,  as  indeed  of 
any  other  science,  is  found  in  that  it  may  contribute  to  the 
Discipline  development  of  a  scientific  attitude  of  mind,  by 
Science4  by  directing  various  mental  processes,  such  as  those 
Study.  involved  in  scientific  observing,  classifying  facts, 

reasoning  on  the  basis  of  demonstrated  facts,  exercising  judg- 

1  On  the  value  of  sciences  in  general  as  intellectual  discipline,  see 
Karl  Pearson's  Grammar  of  Science  (revised);  Spencer's  Education,^. 
73-79;  Huxley's  Essays  on  Science  and  Education,  especially  those  on 
Science  and  Culture  and  on  Value  of  Natural  History;  and  the  essays 
by  Bessey,  Geikie,  Sedgwick,  and  Payne.  With  direct  reference  to 
zoology  see  the  references  to  Harvey  and  Cramer  in  Chapter  III. 


THE  EDUCATIONAL    VALUE   OF  ZOOLOGY    245 

ment  and  discrimination,  and  learning  to  appreciate  demon- 
strated knowledge.  I  do  not  propose  to  review  here  the 
well-known  discussion  of  the  value  of  the  mental  training  to  be 
derived  from  the  above  processes  in  science  study.  For  our 
present  purposes  it  is  sufficient  to  indicate  the  general  bearing 
of  the  disciplinary  aspect  of  zoological  teaching. 

It  is  evident  that  the  discipline  in  scientific  method  is  not  to 
be  advocated  as  peculiar  to  zoology.  It  is  now  well  recognized 
that  all  the  sciences  furnish  materials  for  developing  scientific 
the  chief  elements  of  a  general  scientific  attitude  of  zSioKof 
mind.  In  the  teaching  of  every  science  in  a  second-  Peculiar' 
ary  school  no  occasion  should  be  neglected  for  giving  training 
in  scientific  observing  and  scientific  thinking.  Many  educators 
now  regard  such  training  as  far  more  important  in  liberal  edu- 
cation than  the  knowledge  of  the  facts  of  any  science.  "  Science 
should  hold  its  place  in  the  schools,"  says  President  Jordan, 
"  by  virtue  of  its  power  as  an  agent  in  mental  training,  not  be- 
cause of  the  special  usefulness  of  scientific  facts,  nor  because 
knowledge  of  things  has  a  higher  market  value  than  the  knowl- 
edge of  words."  And  along  the  same  line  Huxley  has  said  : 
"  You  must  not  be  solicitous  to  fill  him  [the  pupil]  with  infor- 
mation, but  you  must  be  careful  that  what  he  learns  he  knows 
of  his  own  knowledge.  .  .  .  Pursue  this  discipline  carefully  and 
conscientiously,  and  you  will  make  sure  that,  however  scanty 
may  be  the  measure  of  information  which  you  have  pounded 
into  the  boy's  mind,  you  have  created  an  intellectual  habit  of 
priceless  value  in  practical  life."  1 

Professor  S.  A.  Forbes,  of  the  University  of  Illinois,  sees  value 
in  the  study  of  zoology  both  for  discipline  and  for  information  : 
"The  pursuit  of  this  science  may  tax  to  its  utmost,  zoology  for 
it  seems   to   me,   every  power  of  mind,   and  the  ?orCinfornSd 
knowledge  of  the  life  it  leads  to  has  a  great  and  tion< 
primary  value  and  interest  to   us  all.     It  will  not  do,   conse- 
quently, to  look  on  it  as*  an  apparatus  for  mental  gymnastics 


1  From  essay  on  Scientific  Education. 


246  THE   TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

only,  and  neither  will  it  do  to  look  at  it,  for  our  purposes,  as  a 
body  of  valuable  knowledge  and  nothing  else.  We  must  see 
both  what  it  contains  that  our  pupils  ought  to  know,  and  what 
the  pursuit  of  it  requires  that  they  ought  to  learn  to  do."  In 
all  this  I  agree  with  Professor  Forbes ;  for  I  believe  there  is  no 
serious  conflict  between  discipline  and  information,  and  aiming 
at  one  does  not  necessarily  exclude  the  other,  as  many  people 
seem  to  think.  It  is  not  necessary  in  teaching  a  science  with 
scientific  training  as  one  leading  aim  that  its  essential  facts 
should  be  at  all  neglected,  for  the  training  depends  primarily 
upon  the  method  of  teaching  rather  than  upon  the  subject- 
matter.  The  best  of  discipline  may  be  given  along  with  infor- 
mation concerning  the  essential  facts  and  principles  of  zoology 
which  have  value  along  the  lines  discussed  in  the  following 
pages.  To  accomplish  this  the  method  of  teaching  must  be 
the  general  method  of  modern  science  —  the  laboratory  method  ; 
but  the  quality  of  the  training  depends  entirely  upon  the  way  in 
which  the  laboratory  work  is  directed.  If  the  disciplinary  aim 
of  zoological  teaching  is  to  meet  with  the  greatest  possible 
realization,  it  must  be  kept  prominently  in  mind  while  planning 
a  laboratory  course  in  zoology,  for  very  much  depends  upon 
the  manner  in  which  problems  for  solution  are  presented  to  the 
minds  of  the  pupils.  A  consideration  of  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciples of  the  laboratory  method  and  its  special  application  to 
zoological  teaching  need  not  here  involve  our  discussion,  but  it 
will  be  referred  to  in  Chapter  III. 

II.    The  Value  of  Zoology  as  Information. 

Aside  from  the  training  in  mental  processes  which  the  study 
of  zoology,  like  all  science  studies,  may  give  the  pupils,  there  is 
the  important  phase  in  which  zoology  stands  upon  its  own 
merits  as  a  science  with  a  peculiar  subject-matter,  some  knowl- 
edge of  which  is  believed  to  form  a  valuable  part  of  a  liberal 
education.  In  this  aspect  of  its  educational  value,  zoology  is 
quite  distinct  from  the  physical  sciences ;  but  it  is  often  impos- 


THE  EDUCATIONAL    VALUE   OF  ZOOLOGY     247 

sible  to  draw  any  sharp  line  between  zoology  and  the  sister- 
science  botany,  which  in  fundamentals  stands  upon  the  same 
basis. 

For  the  purposes  of  later  application  we  may  consider  the  in- 
formation side  of  zoology  from  the  following  points  of  view  :   (a) 
The  direct  utilitarian  value  of  zoological  knowledge, 
or  zoology  as  applied  science ;  (b)  the  intellectual 
value  of  zoology  considered  as  pure  science ;  (c)   Viewpoints, 
the  aesthetic  value  of  zoology  ;    and  (if)  the  moral  value.1 

a.  Utilitarian  or  Practical  Value  of  Zoological  Knowledge. 

The  utilitarian  value  of  knowledge  of  zoology,  that  is,  zoology 
as  applied  science,  will  be  made  evident  by  a  general  review  of 
the  lines  in  which  zoological  knowledge  is  of  direct  practical 
use  in  human  life.2 

Beyond  question  the  most  important  of  these  is  the  physio- 
logical side  in  which  zoology  touches  directly  upon  human  life 

and  health.     In  anticipation  of  the  chapter  on  hu- 

,      .  Physiological 

man  physiology,  it  may  be  said  that  this  subject  is  at  Aspect  of 

basis  closely  related  to  general  zoology,  and  its  study 
is  best  pursued  from  the  viewpoint  of  the  science  of  animal  life. 
In  the  physiological  phase  of  zoology  and  its  bearings  upon  human 
health  the  science  of  zoology  has  strong  justification  in  support 
of  its  place  in  general  education,  and  in  so  far  as  the  science 
has  such  a  practical  relation  to  human  life  it  should  be  an  essen- 
tial part  of  the  education  of  every  individual. 

A  second  argument  for  the  utilitarian  value  of  zoology  is  found 


1  I  find  that  this  division,  which  was  suggested  to  me  by  Huxley's 
essays,  corresponds  with  Professor  Forbes's  classification  of  zoological 
knowledge,  "  according  to  its  industrial,  its  emotional,  its  ethical,  and  its 
intellectual  values." 

2  This  practical  value  of  zoological  knowledge  is  touched  upon  by 
Huxley  in  essays  on  Educational   Value  of  Natural   History,  On   the 
Study   of   Biology,  and   in  various  other    incidental   references   in  his 
Science   and  Education   Essays.     See    also    Forbes,  loc.  cit.     Especially 
important  are  the  essays  by  Horace  Mann,  Huxley,  Herbert  Spencer, 
and  Paget,  on  the  importance  of  human  physiology  in  general  education. 


248  THE   TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

in  the  relations  of  animals  to  man  along  economic  lines.  We 
Economics  of  need  only  mention  some  of  these  relations  in  order 
Zoology.  to  SUggesj;  the  .great  practical  importance  of  some 
economic  aspects  of  animal  life. 

Most  important  of  these  is  the  value  of  animals  in  the  food- 
supply  of  man.  Of  course  this  value  does  not  argue  directly  in 
Animals  and  favor  °f  tne  study  of  animals  in  general  education. 
Food-Supply,  -['he  vaiue  of  animals  in  the  food-supply  is  not  di- 
rectly affected  by  widespread  knowledge  of  zoological  science, 
for  at  most  such  knowledge  would  be  of  direct  practical  value 
only  to  the  relatively  few  who  are  able  to  apply  it  in  the  supply- 
ing of  animals  for  food.  But  the  problems  of  the  food-supply 
are  of  such  importance  that  we  must  believe  that  there  is  general 
interest  in  them  and  especially  in  the  attempts  to  increase  the 
supply  by  the  application  of  scientific  principles  gained  from  the 
study  of  animals.  A  knowledge  of  the  general  facts  of  zoology 
will  do  much  towards  making  the  average  citizen  appreciative  of 
the  work  in  this  line,  especially  that  of  governmental  depart- 
ments such  as  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  the 
United  States  Fish  Commission,  and  the  various  State  agricul- 
tural stations  and  fish  commissions. 

Besides  the  value  of  animals  in  the  human  food-supply,  there 
Domesticated  may  ^e  mentioned  the  useful  domesticated  ani- 
AnlmaiSand  ma^s  anc^  ^e  animal  products  other  than  food.1 
Products.  These  are  aspects  of  animal  economics  which 
should  arouse  at  least  an  intelligent  interest  on  the  part  of 
educated  citizens. 

Then  there  are  the  numerous  animals  which  are  directly  op- 
Injurious  posed  to  the  interests  of  man.  The  economic  im- 
Animais.  portance  of  this  aspect  of  zoological  knowledge  is 
evident  when  one  inquires  into  the  monetary  value  of  crops  and 


1  As  summaries  of  these  aspects  of  economic  zoology,  Simmond's 
Animal  Products,  Shaler's  Domesticated  Animals,  and  Wood's  Dominion 
of  Man  are  suggested.  See  full  biographical  references  under  "  Econ- 
omic Zoology  "  in  chapter  on  "  Zoological  Books." 


THE  EDUCATIONAL    VALUE   OF  ZOOLOGY     249 

domesticated  animals  which  are  annually  destroyed  by  such 
animals  as  insects,  rodents,  and  parasites.1 

Thus  in  the  broader  outlines  we  see  that  the  economic  rela- 
tions  between  man    and  animals  are  manifold  and   of  great 
utilitarian  significance  ;  and  we  cannot  but  believe 
that  such  knowledge  concerning  animals  is  of  gen- 


eral  interest  because  of  economic  relations.     It  is  Relations  of 

Animals, 

true  that  the  great  majority  of  citizens  may  make 
little  direct  practical  application  of  knowledge  of  the  economic 
relations  of  animals,  but  indirectly  all  are  concerned  ;  and  on 
the  ground  of  intelligent  interest  alone  this  would  argue  for  the 
study  of  animals  in  general  education.  This  is  to  my  mind 
exactly  the  same  line  of  argument  which  we  have  long  accepted 
as  the  chief  justification  for  the  study  of  the  commercial  aspect 
of  the  geography  of  foreign  countries.  Very  few  persons  have 
opportunities  for  making  direct  practical  application  of  the  facts 
in  this  line  which  are  commonly  taught  in  our  schools,  but  the 
general  interest  in  the  economics  of  commerce  is  regarded  as 
sufficient  justification.  Likewise,  zoological  knowledge  has  great 
utilitarian  value  from  the  standpoint  of  human  life  in  general, 
but  for  the  masses  of  individuals  it  is  of  importance,  not  on 
account  of  direct  application,  but  because  of  interest  in  animals 
as  they  may  affect  man. 

We  have  seen  that  from  the  practical  standpoint  a  strong 
case  can  be  made  out  in  favor  of  zoology  in  education.     But 

while  this  utilitarian  view  is   in  harmony  with  the 

.  ..    .  ,        .         r  .  ,  .    .      Practical 

materialistic  tendencies  of  our  commercial  age,  it  is  Value  not 

the  Strongest 
not  to  my  mind  the  strongest  argument  for  this  or  Argument  for 

for  any  other  science  in  general  education.    In  fact, 

we  have  seen  that  the  utilitarian  arguments,  with  the  exception 

of  the  unquestioned  value  of  "  physiology/'  apply  specifically 


1  For  accounts  of  injurious  animals,  see  Harris's  Insects  Injurious  to 
Vegetation,  Smith's  Economic  Entomology,  Miall's  Injurious  Insects, 
Sanderson's  Injurious  Insects  (references  in  chapter  on  "  Zoological 
Books  ").  Also  numerous  reports  and  bulletins  of  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture. 


250  THE   TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

only  to  the  special  education  of  the  few  who  may  practise 
certain  phases  of  "  applied  zoology."  Hence,  aside  from  the 
question  of  general  interest  of  most  citizens  in  the  zoology  of 
commerce  in  its  widest  sense,  the  practical  value  of  knowledge 
of  the  science  cannot  be  held  to  justify  its  place  in  general 
education.  In  reality  this  applies  only  to  technical  education, 
especially  in  its  agricultural  phase. 

Clearly  the  science  of  zoology  requires  some  more  general 
justification  than  that  of  its  industrial  application,  and  this  we 
Cultural  Value  ^nc^  m  ^ts  cultural  value,  which  includes  all  which  I 
of  Zoology.  have  in  this  essay  discussed  under  "disciplinary," 
"  intellectual,"  "  moral,"  and  "  aesthetic  "  values.  It  is  for  this 
aspect  of  zoology,  as  indeed  for  science  in  general,  that  we  must 
stand.  This  opinion  has  been  expressed  by  many  writers  from 
Huxley  to  the  present  time.  Especially  to  the  point  are  the 
addresses  by  Sir  Archibald  Geikie  and  by  Professor  C.  E. 
Bessey,  who  strongly  protest  against  the  mere  utilitarian  views 
as  to  the  value  of  science  and  argue  for  its  cultural  value.  In 
Professor  Bessey's  words,  "  that  culture  is  best  which  so  pre- 
pares a  man  that  whatever  fact  presents  itself  to  him,  he  will  be 
able  to  arrange  it  accurately  with  reference  to  others.  This 
ability  to  classify  facts  is  of  far  more  importance  than  mere 
acquaintance  with  facts,  however  extended  the  latter  may  be." 

b.   Intellectual  Value  of  Zoological  Knowledge. 

The  intellectual  value  depends  upon  the  relation  of  zoological 
knowledge  as  pure  science  to  that  of  other  sciences  and  to  still 
other  phases  of  knowledge. 

With  regard  to  the  relation  of  zoology  to  other  sciences,  we 
must  note  first  that  its  greatest  generalizations  are  intricately 
Relation  of  bound  up  with  those  of  botany  in  the  fundamental 
Zoology  to  principles  of  the  general  science  of  life  —  biology. 
Sciences.  Hence  to  a  large  extent  we  cannot  discuss  the 
intellectual  value  of  zoology  entirely  apart  from  that  of  botany. 
Considering,  then,  the  relation  of  biology  to  other  sciences,  it  has 
been  pointed  out  by  Huxley,  Spencer,  and  others  that  the  sub- 


THE  EDUCATIONAL    VALUE   OF  ZOOLOGY    2$l 

ject-matter  of  the  biological  sciences  stands  midway  between 
the  physical  sciences  concerned  with  matter  and  energy  and 
those  dealing  with  the  mind  and  society.1  We  recognize  four 
orders  of  facts  in  science  and  four  groups  of  sciences,  namely, 
physical  sciences  dealing  with  matter  and  energy,  biology 
with  life  phenomena,  psychology  with  mind,  and  sociology  with 
society.  "  Each  of  these  depends  upon  its  predecessor.  The 
student  of  organisms  requires  help  from  the  student  of  chemistry 
and  physics ;  mind  cannot  be  discussed  apart  from  body ;  nor 
can  society  be  studied  apart  from  the  minds  of  its  component 
members.  Each  order  of  realities  we  may  regard  as  a  subtle 
synthesis  of  those  which  we  call  simpler.  Life  is  a  secret 
synthesis  of  matter  and  energy ;  mind  is  a  subtle  form  of  life ; 
society  is  a  unit  of  minds."  2  In  essentials  this  is  the  idea  of 
the  central  relation  of  facts  of  biology  to  other  sciences  which 
has  been  expressed  by  many  writers.  It  is  clear,  then,  that 
knowledge  of  the  biological  principles  must  be  especially 
important  as  a  foundation  for  studies  of  the  more  complex 
sciences  dealing  with  mind  and  society. 

Owing  to  its  central  position  among  the  sciences,  biology  has 
exerted  a  great  influence  upon  many  important  problems  which 
came  forward  during  the  last  half  of  the  nineteenth  Relation  of 
century.  Cosmic  philosophy,  theology,  ethics,  and 
sociology  especially  have  undergone  radical  changes 
in  the  light  of  the  theory  of  organic  evolution  as  it  was  set  forth 
by  Darwin's  epoch-making  Origin  of  Species,  and  Spencer's 
Synthetic  Philosophy? 


1  See  Huxley,  On  Educational  Value  of  Natural  History;  Spencer, 
Relations   of    Biology,    Sociology,   and    Psychology  —  Popular  Science 
Monthly,  Vol.  L.,  p.  163  (1896) ;  J.  A.  Thomson,  Study  of  Animal  Life, 
third  edition,  pp.  348-350. 

2  Thomson,  loc.  cit.,  p.  349. 

3  The   influence  of  the  theory  of  evolution   upon  modern   thought 
along  the  above-mentioned  lines  is  evident  to  the  reader  of  such  works 
as   Fiske's    Cosmic  Philosophy  and    the  later  series  beginning  with  his 
Destiny   of  Man,    Le    Conte's   Evolution   and   Religious     Thought,   and 
Huxley's  Evolution  and  Ethics.      (See  full  bibliographical  references  in 
chapter  on  "  Zoological  Books.") 


252  THE   TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

Now,  while  the  theory  of  evolution  is  broadly  biological,  de- 
riving its  support  from  both  plants  and  animals,  it  is  the  animal 
Evolution  side  which  makes  the  strongest  appeal  to  general 
Reiation'to  students  of  biology.  Man's  relation  to  animals  has 
Animals'  made  the  great  law  of  evolution  seem  overwhelm- 
ingly full  of  philosophical  significance,  and  it  is  therefore  but 
natural  that  general  interest  should  be  appealed  to  by  the  zoo- 
logical evidences  of  evolution,  especially  by  those  which  appear 
to  throw  light  upon  the  relation  of  man  to  nature.  This  is  why 
the  evidences  of  evolution  among  vertebrates  are  so  interesting 
to  general  students  who  are  led  to  consider  the  facts  pointing 
to  the  place  of  man  in  the  back-boned  series.  It  was  the  sug- 
gestion of  man's  descent  in  the  Origin  of  Species,  afterwards 
expanded  into  the  Descent  of  Man,  that  first  brought  the  theory 
of  evolution  prominently  to  the  attention  of  scholars  in  general. 
It  is  this  same  natural  interest  in  man's  relations  which  is  sure 
to  continue  to  be  of  absorbing  interest  to  each  succeeding  gen- 
eration of  beginning  students.  Even  without  regard  to  inter- 
preting facts  of  animal  structure  and  function  in  terms  of 
evolution,  interest  in  the  science  of  biology,  and  especially  in 
zoology,  is  profoundly  influenced  by  the  similarity  of  structure 
and  vital  phenomena  of  "man  and  other  organisms.  This  simi- 
larity has  always  affected,  perhaps  sometimes  unfortunately,  all 
phases  of  biology ;  and  on  the  animal  side  there  has  been  a  de- 
cided tendency  towards  interpreting  structure,  functions,  and 
especially  nervous  phenomena  from  the  human  standpoint. 
We  find,  then,  one  great  difference  between  the  animal  and 
plant  phases  of  biology,  namely,  that  the  evidences  of  evolution 
and  many  general  principles  of  biology  are  for  the  general 
student  more  interesting  and  more  convincing  on  the  animal 
side  because  of  man's  relation  to  the  animal  kingdom.  It  fol- 
lows that  any  arguments  for  the  value  of  biology  which  are 
based  on  the  relations  of  its  greatest  generalizations  to  other 
phases  of  knowledge,  apply  with  special  force  to  the  zoological 
side  of  the  general  science  of  life. 

From  these  outlines  of  the  relation  of  zoology  to  other  phases 


THE  EDUCATIONAL    VALUE  OF  ZOOLOGY     253 

of  human  knowledge,  it  is  clear  that  the  intellectual  value  of 
the  science  must  be  regarded  as  a  strong  argument  favoring  its 
place  in  general  education.  The  relation  of  the  theory  of  evo- 
lution to  modern  thought  in  general  alone  offers  a  sufficient 
argument  for  general  knowledge  of  the  science  which  most 
clearly  and  convincingly  illustrates  the  principles  of  organic 
development. 

With  regard  to  application  of  the  above  discussion  to  second- 
ary education,  it  must  be  admitted  that  pupils  of  the  high-school 

age  do  not  have  the   mental   development   which 

Intellectual 
will  enable  them  to  grapple  with  the  great  general-   Value  as  Ap- 

izations  to  which  reference  has  been  made.  Never-  Secondary 
theless,  high-school  pupils  are  able  to  appreciate  a 
large  number  of  the  underlying  facts,  and  it  seems  reasonable  to 
suppose  that  even  an  elementary  course  of  biology  in  the  high 
school  may  give  the  pupil  an  appreciation  of  the  relations  of 
facts  and  a  viewpoint  which  in  later  years  may  be  important  in 
giving  the  proper  perspective  to  philosophic  studies,  which  are 
commonly  of  interest  to  liberally  educated  men.  But  of  course 
the  biological  work  in  the  secondary  school  should  not  digress 
in  order  to  attempt  pointing  out  the  bearing  of  biology  upon 
other  fields  of  knowledge.  This  must  come  from  future  devel- 
opment ;  but  I  believe  that  the  foundation  may  be  laid  even  as 
early  as  the  secondary  school.  We  may  therefore  conclude 
that  the  arguments  for  the  intellectual  value  of  zoological  knowl- 
edge are  applicable  to  the  secondary  phase  of  general  education. 


c.  The  Esthetic  Value  of  Zoological  Knowledge.1 

"  In  all  animals  there  is  something  to  admire  because  in  all  there  is  the  natural  and 
the  beautiful."  —  Aristotle,  "  Father  of  Natural  History." 

We  now  pass  from  considerations  of  the  value  of  zoological 
information  viewed  as  facts  and  principles  of  natural  science  to 


1  The  aesthetic  value  of  zoology  is  referred  to  by  Huxley,  Thomson, 
Geikie,  Forbes,  Wilson,  and  Bessey,  in  essays  already  cited.  Also  see 
Pearson's  Grammar  of  Science,  pp.  34-36. 


254  THE   TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

that  of  its  relation  to  aesthetics  —  the  science  of  the  beautiful. 
Huxley,  the  master  to  whom  we  frequently  turn  for  ideas  on 
science  in  education,  has  thus  advocated  the  importance  of  the 
bearing  of  biology  on  our  appreciation  of  the  beautiful : 

"  There  is  yet  another  way  in  which  natural  history  [biology]  may, 
I  am  convinced,  take  a  profound  hold  upon  practical  life,  and  that 
Huxley's  's>  by  ^s  influence  over  our  finer  feelings,  as  the  great- 
View,  est  of  all  sources  of  that  pleasure  derivable  from 
beauty.  I  do  not  pretend  that  natural  history  knowledge,  as  such, 
can  increase  our  sense  of  the  beautiful  in  natural  objects.  .  .  . 
But  I  advocate  natural  history  knowledge  from  this  point  of  view, 
because  it  would  lead  us  to  seek  the  beauties  of  natural  objects 
instead  of  trusting  to  chance  to  force  them  on  our  attention."  i 

That  there  is  educational  value  in  cultivating  an  appreciation 
of  the  beautiful  in  natural  objects  we  may  accept  as  demon- 
strated by  the  students  of  aesthetics  and  by  our  own  personal 
experiences.  However,  this  has  often  been  neglected  in  weigh- 
ing the  value  of  science  in  education,  because  its  field  has  no 
direct  relation  to  that  of  pure  natural  science.  The  aesthetical 
appreciation  of  natural  objects  has  little  significance  from  the 
standpoint  of  pure  science  which  the  emotional  must  not  be 
allowed  to  influence,  nor  from  that  of  applied  science  with  its 
formal  demand  for  material  results,  but  it  is  full  of  meaning 
when  our  outlook  upon  life  and  nature  is  that  of  Sir  John  Lub- 
bock  in  his  Beauties  of  Nature;  of  John  Van  Dyke  in  his 
Nature  for  its  Own  Sake ;  of  Gilbert  White  in  his  Natural 
History  of  Selborne  ;  of  Ruskin ;  of  our  American  nature-lovers, 
Henry  Thoreau  and  John  Burroughs  ;  and  of  many  others  who 
have  helped  us  to  appreciate  beauty  in  nature. 

With  direct  reference  to  the  animal  side  of  biology,  the 
strongest  reason  for  advocating  on  aesthetic  grounds  the  study 
of  animal  life  is  found  in  that  the  appreciation  of  the  beautiful 
in  animal  form,  colors,  and  movements  has  in  all  times  and 


1  Huxley,  On  the  Educational  Value  of  Natural  History,  p.  63,  in 
Science  and  Education  Essays. 


THE  EDUCATIONAL    VALUE   OF  ZOOLOGY    255 

countries  been  the  chief  source  of  a  general  interest  in  animal 
life.  "  To  many  animal  life  is  impressive,  not  so  much  because 
of  its  amazing  variety  and  numerical  greatness,  nor  j^  Beautiful 
because  of  its  intellectual  suggestiveness  and  practi- 
cal  utility,  but  chiefly  on  account  of  its  beauty. 
This  is  to  be  seen  and  felt,  rather  than  described  terest- 
and  talked  about."1  This  is  the  explanation  of  the  popular 
interest  in  birds,  insects,  shells  of  mollusks — all  forms  with 
splendid  coloration  and  other  attributes  which  appeal  strongly 
to  the  aesthetic  sense.  The  same  is  true  of  the  very  many 
animals  which  have  long  been  under  the  care  of  man  primarily 
because  of  their  beauty,  —  for  example,  gold  fishes  in  Japan, 
numerous  birds  and  other  so-called  ornamental  animals.  On 
the  other  hand,  there  has  never  been  general  interest  in  such 
animals  as  are  commonly  considered  repulsive ;  but  to  the  man 
of  science  some  of  these  despised  forms  are  of  great  interest 
and  from  the  study  of  some  of  them  much  light  has  been 
thrown  upon  important  principles  of  zoology.  It  therefore 
seems  clear  that  popular  interest  in  animals  is  in  no  small 
measure  determined  by  aesthetic  rather  than  by  strictly  scientific 
considerations. 

We  find  further  evidence  of  the  existence  of  a  general  tend- 
ency towards  interest  in  the  beautiful  in  animals  if  we  examine 
books  on  animal  natural  history  which  have  been  The  ^Esthetic 
popular  with  general  readers.  These  books  have 
not  aimed  to  present  the  cold  scientific  facts  which 
mean  most  from  the  standpoint  of  pure  science,  so  much  as 
they  have  emphasized  those  things  which  appeal  to  the  aesthetic 
sense.  This  is  especially  true  in  the  recent  illustrated  books 
which  have  had  unparalleled  popularity.  The  secret  of  the 
great  wave  of  interest  in  these  is  not,  I  believe,  to  be  found  in 
their  descriptions  of  animals  —  in  many  cases  these  are  not  to  be 
compared  in  literary  charm  with  many  older  books ;  but  modern 
methods  of  illustration  have  made  it  possible  for  the  first  time 


1  Thomson's  Study  of  Animal  Life,  p.  15. 


256  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

to  represent,  with  considerable  approximation  to  the  natural, 
the  beautiful  in  animal  form  and  color.  Heretofore  the  beauti- 
ful in  animals  has  been  expressed  only  in  words,  but  now  their 
almost  perfect  likenesses  are  given  a  setting  which  appeals 
strongly  to  the  aesthetic  sense.  This,  I  feel  sure,  is  the  chief 
reason  for  the  widespread  interest  in  our  modern  nature  books 
as  contrasted  with  earlier  works,  and  the  popularity  of  repre- 
sentations of  the  beautiful  in  animals  is  only  another  proof  of  a. 
general  tendency  towards  interest  in  animals  because  of  their 
appeal  to  the  aesthetic  sense. 

Still  further  evidence  of  the  appeal  to  interest  by  the 
beautiful  in  animals  may  be  obtained  by  studying  the  attitude 
Interest  of  °^  young  pupils,  and  even  many  college  students, 
iia0 the  Beauty  towai"d  such  animals  as  butterflies  as  compared 
of  Animals.  wjtn  jess  beautiful  specimens,  such  as  earthworms. 
Or  in  some  great  museum  notice  the  interest  of  visitors  in  the 
beautiful  animals,  and  this  alone  convinces  one  that  great  in- 
terest in  animals,  especially  that  of  young  people,  is  in  no  small 
degree  influenced  by  beauty. 

I  have  emphasized  the  general  interest  in  the  beautiful  in 
animals  for  two  reasons.     First,  because  it  suggests  the  impor- 
tance of  cultivating  an  appreciation  of  animal  beauty 
Importance  of  ' 

Emphasis  on     for  its  own  sake,  and  second,  because  I  see  in  the 

general  interest  in  the  aesthetic  side  of  animal  life  an 
opportunity  for  enlisting  and  developing  interest  in  the  study  of 
animals  from  the  standpoint  of  pure  science.1  For  these  two 
reasons  I  would  urge  that  aesthetical  considerations  should  be  rec- 
ognized by  teachers  as  offering  important  arguments  for  the  study 
of  animals  and  plants  in  general  education,  and  as  suggesting 
the  nature  of  studies  aiming  to  cultivate  the  aesthetic  appreciation 
of  animal  life.  The  aesthetic  value  is,  I  believe,  not  secondary 
in  its  importance  in  education,  but  equal  to  those  which  I  have 
grouped  under  "  practical  "  and  "  intellectual." 


1  See  Wilson,  loc.  tit.,  p.  22. 


THE  EDUCATIONAL    VALUE  OF  ZOOLOGY    257 

d.     Moral  Value  of  Zoological  Knowledge.1 

As  evidence  of  the  moral  value  of  the  knowledge  of  animals, 
many   writers  have    been    fond   of  pointing   out  that   various 

inter-relations    of    animals  —  e.  g..  in    social  life, 

.      f  ;    Relation  of 

parasitism,  struggle  for  existence,  and    mutual  aid   Biology  to 

,  ...  Ethics. 

—  have   a   suggestive    bearing    upon    human  life 

and  conduct.  Without  here  questioning  the  soundness  of 
such  direct  comparison  between  man  and  animals,  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  in  their  broad  application  certain  facts  and 
generalizations  of  biology  do  affect  human  ethics.  For  ex- 
ample, we  need  only  mention  the  biological  laws  of  evolution 
and  heredity  which  in  the  hands  of  Herbert  Spencer  and 
other  ethical  writers  of  the  evolutionary  school  have  led  to 
the  interpretation  of  the  science  of  conduct  from  an  entirely 
new  point  of  view. 

However,  the  philosophical  deductions  of  students  of  ethics 
from  biological  facts  really  belong  to  the  intellectual  value  of 
zoology.  Here  I  wish  to  limit  the  discussion 
to  the  influence  of  knowledge  of  animals  upon  of  Sympa- 
hurnan  conduct  directly  through  sympathetic  ac-  quaintance 
quaintance,  rather  than  by  way  of  any  formulated  wl  m  s' 
ethical  principles.  It  is  in  developing  sympathetic  appreciation 
of  animals  that  the  chief  moral  value  of  the  study  of  zoology 
in  general  education  is  to  be  found.  "  The  peculiar  ethical 
effects  of  zoological  study,"  says  Professor  Forbes,  "  are  to 
be  drawn  chiefly  from  that  side  of  it  which  deals  with  the 
lower  animals  as  alive  ;  from  a  knowledge  of  them  as  sentient, 
often  intelligent,  and  sometimes  thoughtful  beings,  which 
tends  to  greatly  broaden  and  enrich  the  pupil's  sympathetic 
interest."  These  results,  like  those  on  the  aesthetic  side,  are 
not  measurable  by  examinations,  but  I  believe  they  may  be 


1  Special  references :  H.  Spencer  on  the  Moral  Discipline  of  Science, 
in  Education,  p.  79.  A.  B.  Buckley's  Moral  Teachings  of  Science  (Hum- 
boldt  Library  of  Science)  is  suggestive,  but  her  comparisons  between 
human  and  animal  life  often  seem  extreme. 

17 


258  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

made  a  very  real  and  important  addition  to  the  educational 
value  of  zoology. 

Certain  critics  of  the  modern  method  of  zoological  study, 
which  oftentimes  necessarily  involves  the  killing  of  animals, 
Moral  Effect  wou^  have  us  believe  that  the  courses  of  zoology 
studying10*  as  now  commonly  conducted  tend  to  lessen  rather 
Animals*  than  increase  the  sympathy  of  pupils  for  living 
animals.  Perhaps  this  criticism  is  often  justified  as  applied  to 
particular  cases,  but  for  these  individual  teachers  are  responsi- 
ble. With  the  laboratory  work  properly  conducted  by  a  teacher 
who  has  the  true  scientific  spirit,  along  with  interest  in  living 
animals,  there  seems  to  be  no  reason  why  pupils  should  learn 
to  value  animal  life  lightly,  even  if  for  the  sake  of  science  study 
some  few  individuals  must  be  sacrificed.  But  unfortunately 
some  amateurs  in  science  teaching  have  the  false  impression 
that  to  be  ruthless  and  careless  in  taking  animal  life  is  proof 
of  scientific  attainments  ;  and  as  a  result  the  zoological  labora- 
tory is  sometimes  turned  into  a  veritable  slaughter-house. 
There  is  no  justification  for  the  wanton  waste  of  material  which 
is  sometimes  the  outgrowth  of  the  teacher's  lack  of  appreciation 
of  living  animals.  The  effect  upon  the  pupil  is  bound  to  be 
bad,  both  morally  and  in  scientific  training.  As  opposed  to 
such  reckless  practices,  I  would  urge  that  it  is  the  duty  of  the 
teacher  to  discourage  by  example  and  by  words  the  ruthless 
and  unnecessary  sacrifice  of  animal  life ;  and  pupils  should  be 
led  to  get  the  greatest  possible  results  from  a  minimum  of 
materials.  Especially  is  this  important  in  the  case  of  the 
higher  animals  with  which  our  sympathetic  relations  are  most 
direct. 

But  in  addition  to  such  indirect  work  against  possible  loss 
of  appreciation,  I  would  urge  the  importance  of  direct  effort 

towards  increasing  sympathy  with  living  animals. 
Direct  Effort  ,  .  .  ,  . 

to  Develop       The  attitude  and  the  example  and  the  incidental 

suggestions  of  the  teacher  have  the  greatest  influ- 
ence ;  and  besides  the  reading  of  certain  books  which  deal  with 
animals  as  living  should  be  encouraged,  especially  books  on 


THE  EDUCATIONAL    VALUE   OF  ZOOLOGY     259 

birds  and  mammals.1  Special  mention  should  be  made  of 
Shaler's  Domesticated  Animals,  especially  the  introduction  and 
the  chapter  on  Rights  of  Animals ;  Kropotkin's  Mutual  Aid 
among  Animals ;  also  his  articles  in  Nineteenth  Century,  Vol. 
XXV  III.,  pp.  337,  699,  1890  ;  Thomson's  Study  of  Animal  Life, 
Part  I. ;  Sharp's  Wild  Life  near  Home,  and  the  selections  from 
this  in  A  Watcher  in  the  Woods  (Century  Company).  Aside  from 
the  question  of  scientific  accuracy,  the  animal  books  by  Kipling, 
Thompson-Seton,  Long,  London,  and  other  imaginative  writers, 
are  certainly  to  be  commended  as  stimulating  the  interest  and 
the  sympathy  of  readers.  With  the  explanation  that  they  are 
stories,  I  can  -see  no  possible  harm,  but  much  good,  in  the 
moral  effect  which  may  come  from  putting  such  books  into  the 
hands  of  pupils  old  enough  to  read  them.  However,  such  books 
should  not  be  erroneously  classed  under  natural  history. 

We  have  seen  that  from  several  points  of  view  the  study  of 
zoology  has  value  in  general  education.     Further,  it  has  been 
indicated    that    in    all    those    aspects  wherein   the  ^11  above 
science  is  important  in  liberal  education  it  is  ap-  ^le  to  Schools 
plicable  to   schools  below   the  grade    of    college.  beiowCoiiege. 
Clearly,  it  is  desirable  for  such  schools  because  the  masses  of 
citizens  never   have   opportunity  for   studying   the   subject  in 
college. 

From  the  educational  contents  of  zoology  we  may  formulate 
two  aims  which  should  govern  the  teaching  in  the  secondary 
school.  First,  the  aim  to  teach  zoology  so  that  it 
will  afford  good  scientific  discipline  should  be  the 
very  foundation  of  zoological  teaching.  Second,  it  School, 
should  be  aimed  to  present  the  information  —  practical,  intel- 
lectual, aesthetic,  or  moral  in  its  bearing  —  which  seems  most 
valuable  for  liberal  secondary  education.  Equal  emphasis 
should  be  given  these  two  aims  which,  as  already  suggested, 
are  in  no  sense  necessarily  conflicting,  for  the  one  stands  for 
methods  and  the  other  for  materials.  These  two  general  aims 


1  See  list  of  books  on  "  Animal  Natural  History  "  in  Chapter  X. 


260  THE   TRACE  ING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

include  the  minor  aims  which  various  authors  have  suggested, 
and  into  these  they  will  later  be  analyzed.  A  consideration  of 
the  disciplinary  aim  in  its  relation  to  the  laboratory  method  can 
best  be  made  after  some  selection  of  the  materials  which  are 
demanded  by  the  second  aim,  and  with  such  selection  the  next 
chapter  deals. 


CHAPTER   II 

THE   SUBJECT-MATTER    OF    ZOOLOGY    PROM    THE    STAND- 
POINT   OF    THE    SECONDARY    SCHOOL1 

"  The  main  object  of  teaching  biology  as  part  of  a  liberal  education  is  to  familiarize 
the  student  not  so  much  with  the  facts  as  with  the  ideas  of  the  science." — T.  JEFFREY 
PARKER. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Forbes,  S.  A.  Pedagogical  Contents  of  Zoology.  In  Educational 
Papers  by  Illinois  Science  Teachers  (Peoria,  111.,  1891),  pp.  38-48. 
Also  in  EDUCATIONAL  REVIEW,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  328-336.  1891. 

Bigelow,  M.  A.  Introduction  to  Outline  of  a  Course  of  Zoology  in 
Horace  Mann  High  School.  TEACHERS  COLLEGE  RECORD,  Vol.  II., 
No.  i,  pp.  4-15.  January,  1901.  Also  in  SCHOOL  SCIENCE,  Vol.  L, 
Nos.  2  and  3,  pp.  68-72,  131-138.  April,  May,  1901. 

Davenport,  C.  B.  Zoology  as  a  Condition  for  Admission  to  College. 
High  School  Bulletin,  No.  2,  University  of  State  of  New  York,  Albany. 

1899.  (Followed  by  discussion.) 

Report  of  Committee  on  Zoology.  Proceedings  of  National  Educa- 
tional Association,  1899,  pp.  805-808. 

Report  of  Committee  of  New  York  State  Science  Teachers'  Associa- 
tion, on  Secondary  School  Course  in  Zoology.  High  School  Bulletin, 
No.  7,  University  of  State  of  New  York,  pp.  528-548,  743-777.  April, 

1900.  (Obtainable  from   secretary   of   the  University,    Albany,    N.    Y. 
Price  35  cents.) 

Prefaces  to  text-books  by  Needham,  Davenport,  Jordan  and  Kellogg, 
Harvey,  Kellogg,  and  Colton.  See  list  in  Chapter  X. 

IN  selecting  the  subject-matter  for  an  elementary  course  in 
zoology  for  secondary  schools,  the  field  of  zoological  knowledge 

should   be   viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  liberal   „ 

.     Zoology  from 
education,  as  distinguished  from  special  or  techni-   the  stand- 

cal  education.     The  field  is  wide,  and  at  best  only  Liberal 

.      3    Education, 
a  glimpse  of  animal  structure  and  life  can  be  given 

in  a  single  course.     Bearing  in  mind  that  the  great  majority 


1  The  leading  views  expressed  in  this  chapter  may  be  regarded  as 
essentially  the  development  of  some  suggestions  in  Teachers  College 
Record,  Vol.  II.,  No.  I.  January,  1901. 


262  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

of  secondary  pupils  can  never  follow  more  than  one  course  of 
instruction  in  the  subject,  the  problem  is  to  fill  that  one  course 
with  those  zoological  facts  and  ideas  which  have  the  closest 
relation  to  the  every-day  life  of  a  liberally  educated  man.  In 
the  future  it  must  be  recognized  more  clearly  than  it  has  been 
in  the  past  that  many  phases  of  the  science  of  zoology  which 
are  of  interest  and  of  importance  to  the  specialist  may  have 
no  definite  meaning  to  a  man  in  other  walks  of  life.  Many 
teachers  of  zoology  in  secondary  schools  do  not  seem  to  have 
examined  the  subject  in  this  light,  and  as  a  result  elementary 
zoology  has  been  too  often  taught  as  if  it  was  the  aim  to  train 
the  pupils  for  professional  work  in  zoology  or  in  some  of  its 
direct  applications,  such  as  medicine.  This  special  or  tech- 
nical training  is  the  proper  work  of  colleges,  and  has  no  more 
place  in  the  secondary  school  than  have  higher  applied  math- 
ematics. In  the  college  system  the  student  may  be  expected 
to  acquire  much  technical  information  while  he  is  getting  a 
general  view  of  the  field  of  zoology.  In  the  secondary  school 
the  technical  matter  is  undesirable,  but  the  general  view  is  of 
great  importance.  These  wide  differences  between  the  aims 

which  govern  the  zoological  teaching  in  colleges 
Different 

Aims  in  and  those  which  should  underlie  the  work  in  the 

College  and  .  , 

Secondary        secondary  school  need  to  be  strongly  emphasized, 

for  already  there  have  been  too  many  attempts  to 
transfer  college  courses  and  books  into  the  secondary  school. 
The  problem  of  high-school  teaching  is  not  a  question  of  how 
near  an  approach  can  be  made  to  the  college  technical  courses 
in  zoology,  but  a  question  of  the  value  of  such  work  in  liberal 
secondary  education.  Is  it  the  most  valuable  which  can 
be  selected  from  the  wide  field  of  zoology?  This  is  the  really 
vital  question  which  apparently  has  been  overlooked  by  many 
who  have  prepared  outlines  of  study  for  elementary  zoology  in 
secondary  schools,  but  upon  the  answer  will  depend  whether 
in  the  future  zoology  justifies  its  right  to  a  place  in  the  second- 
ary curriculum.  To  a  discussion  of  this  problem  of  the  es- 
sentials of  zoology  this  chapter  will  be  devoted. 


SECONDARY  SCHOOL   STANDPOINT         263 

The  field  of  zoological  knowledge  is  so  wide  that,  as  a  matter 
of  convenience,  naturalists  recognize  the  subdivision  of  the 
general  science  into  special  sub-sciences  or  phases,  Divisions  of 
each  dealing  with  a  peculiar  aspect  of  animal  Zooloey- 
structure  or  life,  and  all  necessarily  involved  in  any  wide  and 
comprehensive  view  of  the  general  field  of  zoology.  Among 
these  sub-sciences  we  must  consider  the  following :  anatomy 
(including  histology),  dealing  with  animal  form  and  structure  ; 
palaeontology,  treating  of  animal  fossils ;  systematic  zoology  or 
classification ;  physiology,  dealing  with  functions  of  organs ; 
and  the  science  of  animal  environmental  relations,  ecology. 
The  first  four  are  based  on  structure  and  hence  are  commonly 
regarded  as  sub-divisions  of  morphology  in  the  strict  use  of  that 
term,  although  we  sometimes  find  it  used  quite  synonymously 
with  anatomy.  Physiology  and  ecology,  the  first  referring  to 
functional  relations  within  the  organism,  the  second  to  relations 
between  organisms  and  its  environment,  are  to  be  looked  upon 
as  aspects  of  general  physiology,  which  with  morphology  con- 
stitute the  science  of  zoology.1  Before  considering  the  educa- 
tional contents  of  these  sub-divisions  of  the  strict  science  of 
zoology,  we  must  examine  the  so-called  "  natural  history," 
which  during  the  past  few  years  has  aroused  so  much  interest 
in  connection  with  the  high-school  study  of  animals,  and  point 
out  its  general  relations  to  zoology  as  a  science. 

The  limits  of  the  field  of  animal  natural  history  as  now  under- 
stood cannot  be  defined  sharply,  since  its   materials  may  be 
drawn  from  several  of  the  sub-sciences  involved  in   Reiati0ns  of 
zoology.     In  fact,  it  may  be  said  to  be  a  general  JS^1"^^8" 
superficial  survey  of  animals,  especially  from  the   Z0610^- 
standpoints  of  their  external  structures  and  adaptations,  general 

1  The  relations  of  these  sub-sciences  are  well  presented  in  the  intro- 
ductory chapters  of  Sedgwick  and  Wilson's  General  Biology  (Holt, 
New  York),  and  in  Hertwig's  General  Principles  of  Zoology:  translation  by 
Field  (Holt).  The  relation  of  physiology  to  ecology  is  clearly  pointed 
out  in  the  first  chapter  of  Semper's  Animal  Life  (Appleton),  in  which 
"  physiology  of  organisms  "  (ecology)  is  compared  with  "  physiology  of 
organs"  (physiology  as  commonly  understood). 


264  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

classification,  life-histories,  habits,  and  economic  relations  to 
man.  As  now  applied  to  elementary  study  of  animals,  natural 
history  has  the  same  relation  to  zoology  which  the  two  had  to 
each  other  in  the  historical  development  of  our  knowledge  of 
animals.  In  the  time  preceding  the  eighteenth  century,  there 
was  accumulated  a  vast  mass  of  facts  about  animals,  especially 
concerning  their  external  structure,  classification,  and  life-his- 
tories. In  all  this  mass  of  material  there  was  little  order 
because  facts  stood  more  or  less  isolated,  and  to  all  this  the 
term  "natural  history"  was  literally  applicable.1  But  with  the 
laying  of  the  foundation  of  modern  comparative  zoology  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  century,  the  accumulated  facts 
from  twenty-five  centuries  began  to  take  their  places  in  the 
science  of  zoology ;  and  few,  indeed,  were  the  facts  of  the  old 
natural  history  which  had  not  some  definite  relation  to  the 
science  as  it  was  organized  long  before  another  century  had 
passed.  Such  was  the  transition  from  the  natural  history 
("  records  of  researches  ")  of  animals  to  the  modern  science 
of  zoology.  It  was  the  result  not  alone  of  the  rapid  accumula- 
tion of  new  facts  or  of  the  nature  of  these,  but  rather  of  the 
classification  and  organization  of  facts  on  the  basis  of  the 
generalizations  which  constitute  the  foundation  of  zoology  as 
we  know  the  science  to-day.  The  established  principles  are 
the  distinguishing  features  of  modern  zoology  as  compared 
with  the  old  natural  history  of  animals.  The  same  difference 
obtains  between  natural  history  as  we  now  apply  that  term  to 
certain  elementary  studies  of  animals  and  zoology  in  the  strict 
sense.  By  the  first  we  mean  now,  as  historically,  a  general 
survey  of  animals  for  the  sake  of  acquaintance  with  the  facts, 
and  with  little  or  no  organization  of  these  facts  on  the  basis  of 


1  The  phrase  "natural  history,"  as  applied  to  animals,  appears  to 
have  originated  from  the  Latin  translation  of  the  title  of  Aristotle's 
work,  which  in  the  original  Greek  meant  "  records  of  investigations  on 
animals."  The  natural  history  of  animals,  before  its  development  into 
modern  zoology,  was  chiefly  a  mass  of  "records,"  without  organization 
into  science. 


SECONDARY  SCHOOL   STANDPOINT          265 

generalizations.  Zoology,  on  the  contrary,  in  education  as  in 
the  pure  science,  involves  as  an  essential  the  idea  of  com- 
parisons leading  to  generalizations  upon  which  to  classify  the 
facts.  Such  I  conceive  to  be  the  difference  between  natural 
history  and  zoology  considered  historically,  and  so  they  should 
be  understood  as  applied  to  education  at  the  present  time.  In 
this  volume  the  term  natural  history  will  be  used  in  its  historical 
sense  to  refer  to  mere  accumulations  of  facts  about  animals  — 
chiefly  the  more  obvious  facts  observable  in  the  living  animals 
—  while  the  term  zoology  will  be  applied  to  the  study  of 
animals  from  the  standpoint  of  the  modern  science,  with  the 
principles,  comparisons,  and  generalizations  which  make  it 
organized.  With  this  understanding  of  the  relations  of  nat- 
ural history  and  zoology,  we  may  consider  the  place  of  the 
former  in  education. 

We   can   best   understand    the    present   natural    history    in 
secondary  schools  after  briefly  reviewing  the  history  of  formal 

instruction  concerning  animals.     From  the  earliest 

Natural  His- 
records  of  such    teaching  in   the  last  part  of  the   toryinEdu- 

.  ...       cation, 

eighteenth  century  until  sometime  in  the  eighties 

of  the  nineteenth  century,  the  common  instruction  was  along 
the  lines  of  the  old  natural  history,  consisting  chiefly  of  descrip- 
tions of  external  form,  life-histories,  classification,  and  relations 
of  animals  to  man.  Such  instruction  was  designed  simply  to 
give  the  pupils  acquaintance  with  the  most  interesting  facts 
about  animals,  and  involved  no  aim  for  scientific  discipline.1 
But  all  this  was  changed  by  the  advances  in  the  instruction  in 
colleges  along  the  lines  laid  down  by  Huxley.2  Between  1885 
and  1895  the  laboratory  method  became  extensively  applied  to 
the  teaching  of  zoology  in  our  high  schools.  Practical  studies 


1  For  a  more  complete  account  of  this  early  instruction,  see  History 
of  the  Teaching  of  Zoology  in  the  Secondary  Schools  of  the  United 
States,  by  Marion  R.  Brown,  in  School  Science,  Vol.  II.     October  and 
November,  1902. 

2  Especially  in  Huxley  &  Martin's  Practical  Biology  (1875),  and  in 
essay  On  Study  of  Biology  (1876). 


266  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

came  to  constitute  the  chief  part  of  the  work ;  and,  as  an  op- 
posite extreme  from  the  study  of  the  old  natural  history,  books 
were  neglected.  In  the  very  nature  of  things  structure  of 
animals  was  best  adapted  to  such  exclusive  laboratory  studies, 
and  the  work  became  almost  entirely  anatomical,  involving 
much  dissection  and  use  of  the  compound  microscope. 

As  will  appear  later,  there  are  many  serious    objections  to 
such  exclusive  limitation  of  studies  of  animals  to  the  anatomical 

work,   and  the  criticisms  which    have  been  made 
Present  Posi- 
tion of  Katu-     against  such  study  have  within  the  past  five  years 
ral  History.         fa ,  J  ,      .,    , 

led  to  a  reaction  and  a  decided  tendency  towards 

abandoning  many  of  the  characteristic  features  of  the  anatomical 
course  and  returning  towards  the  former  natural-history 
course.  This  reaction  is  best  expressed  by  the  Davenports  in 
the  Introduction  to  Zoology?  which  was  planned  as  "  an  attempt 
to  restore  the  old-time  instruction  in  natural  history."  Such 
a  course  as  presented  by  these  authors  has  nothing  to  do  with 
the  study  of  internal  structures  of  animals  which  is  a  prominent 
feature  of  all  courses  in  zoology.  Obviously  there  can  be  no 
scientific  consideration  of  the  fundamental  physiological  pro- 
cesses, and  there  is  no  attempt  to  present  the  general  principles 
of  zoology  as  a  science.  Emphasis  is  placed  on  the  study  of  ex- 
ternal form,  classification,  movements,  habits,  and  life-histories 
of  animals.  In  short,  this  and  other  recent  courses  in  the  natural 
history  of  animals  are  in  essentials  modern  restorations  of  the 
old-time  instruction,  and  in  subject-matter  are  very  similar  to 
text-books  which  were  used  fifty  years  ago.  The  chief  differ- 
ence between  the  old  and  the  new  teaching  in  natural  history 
is  not  essentially  one  of  facts  but  rather  one  of  methods ;  for  it 
is  now  proposed  to  subordinate  the  recitation  to  personal  ob- 
servation by  the  pupil  who  will  learn  some  facts  from  the  natural 
objects  instead  of  exclusively  depending  upon  books,  as  formerly. 


1  This  text-book  may  be  regarded  as  the  full  development  of  an  Out- 
line of  Entrance  Requirements  in  Zoology,  Lawrence  Scientific  School, 
Harvard  University.  1898. 


SECONDARY  SCHOOL   STANDPOINT          267 

With  regard  to  the  value  of  natural  history,  suffice  it  to  say 
here  that  such  a  general  survey  -of  animals  is  generally  regarded 
as  very  interesting  to  those  who  cannot  go  deep  into  valueofifatu- 
the  science  of  zoology.1  "  What  the  ordinary  citi-  ral  H*8*01^ 
zen  needs,"  says  Professor  Davenport,  "  is  an  acquaintance  with 
common  animals."  It  is  not  to  be  denied  that  giving  such 
acquaintance  should  hold  a  place  in  the  zoological  instruction 
in  schools  below  the  grade  of  college,  but  just  what  is  its  proper 
place  in  such  schools  is  a  question  which  we  shall  consider  in 
Chapter  IV.  In  the  present  connection  it  is  only  necessary  to 
say  that  it  may  well  be  doubted  whether  a  course  devoted  ex- 
clusively to  natural  history  is  altogether  the  best  for 
secondary  work.  Especially  in  the  omission  of  all  Natural 
reference  to  the  general  facts  of  internal  structure 
in  all  animals  the  reaction  from  the  purely  anatomical  course 
has  been  too  extreme.  In  a  succeeding  section  of  this  chapter 
there  will  be  discussed  the  value  of  physiological  study,  and 
from  this  it  will  appear  that  many  general  facts  of  internal 
structure  of  some  animals  are  from  the  physiological  standpoint 
essential  in  an  elementary  course  in  zoology.  Hence,  in  not 
presenting  internal  structure  the  strictly  natural-history  course 
is  inadequate.  It  gives  a  view  of  animal  life  which  is  almost 
as  limited,  even  though  more  interesting,  as  the  anatomical 
work  which  it  is  proposed  to  supplant.  We  must  not  lose  sight 
of  our  aim  to  present  the  important  general  facts  and  principles 
of  zoology ;  and  we  must  conclude  that  while  a  general  ac- 
quaintance with  animals  is  needed  by  the  average  citizen,  exclu- 
sive attention  to  such  popular  and  somewhat  desultory  studies 
leads  to  the  omission  of  facts  of  morphology  and  physiology 
which  are  of  great  importance  in  secondary  education.  Enough 
has  been  said  to  indicate  that  natural  history  does  not  in  itself 
give  that  view  of  the  principles  of  the  science  of  zoology  which 
are  demanded  for  general  education.  It  is  undoubtedly  well 


1  See  Davenport,  loc.  cit.  (1899),  p.  463.      Also  preface  to  the  Intro- 
duction to  Zoology, 


268  THE   TEACHING  OF  ZOOLOGY 

adapted  for  giving  the  general  acquaintance  with  animals  which 
is  desirable  as  preliminary  to  the  study  of  zoology  as  a  science, 
but  such  preliminary  study  should  have  limitations  which  will 
be  pointed  out  in  the  introduction  to  the  chapter  on  "  Beginning 
Work  in  Zoology." 

Rejecting  natural  history  as  in  itself  inadequate  for  general 
secondary  education,  we  may  now  consider  the  educational 
Educational  contents  of  the  general  science  of  zoology  with  a 
General8  °f  view  to  selecting  the  subject-matter  valuable  for 
Zoology.  secondary  education.  It  will  be  most  convenient 
to  regard  it  as  separated  into  its  various  phases  or  sub-sciences, 
although  in  actual  practice  in  elementary  study  no  such  division 
lines  can  be  drawn  ;  and  we  shall  discuss  in  succession  :  anat- 
omy, physiology,  ecology,  classification,  embryology,  palaeon- 
tology, philosophical  zoology  (evolution),  economic  zoology, 
and  the  history  of  zoology.  It  is  from  these  phases  of  zoology 
considered  as  an  organized  science  that  we  must  draw  the  facts 
and  principles  for  a  general  course.  To  a  great  extent  our 
selection  of  facts  must  be  guided  by  the  principles  which  they 
illustrate  ;  for  "  the  main  object  of  teaching  biology  as  part  of 
a  liberal  education  is  to  familiarize  the  student  not  so  much 
with  the  facts  as  with  the  ideas  of  the  science." 1 

Anatomy. 

The  study  of  anatomy,  gross  and  microscopical,  is  obviously 
the  foundation  for  that  of  all  other  phases  of  zoology  ;  forclassi- 
Anatomy  fication,  physiology,  embryology,  and  ecology  rest 
fundamental.  upon  a  basjs  of  structure.  It  follows,  therefore,  that 
anatomy  is  an  absolutely  essential  part  of  any  elementary  course 
in  the  science  of  zoology,  and  there  is  no  other  way  of  begin- 
ning except  by  giving  considerable  attention  to  structural  facts 
as  the  basis  for  classifying,  determining  functions,  studying  life- 
histories,  or  interpreting  environmental  relations.  Anatomy, 
then,  is  the  foundation  of  zoological  study.  It  is  in  the  very  na 


1  Parker's  Elementary  Biology,  preface. 


SECONDARY  SCHOOL  STANDPOINT         269 

ture  of  things  the  beginning,  but  should  it  be  also  the  end  in  a 
course  in  elementary  zoology  ?  This  is  essentially  the  question 
concerning  the  teaching  of  zoology  in  secondary  schools  which 
in  recent  years  has  aroused  much  discussion. 

As  has  been  incidentally  stated,  the  course  in  elementary  zo- 
ology which  from  about  1885  to  1898  was  followed  in  the  ma- 
jority of  the  more  prominent  secondary  schools  con- 
sisted largely  of  the  detailed  comparative  study  of  the  Anatomical 
structure  of  a  series  of  animals.  This  was  a  very  close 
imitation  of  a  common  introductory  course  in  comparative  anat- 
omy for  college  students,  which  was  introduced  in  1875  by  the 
well-known  Practical  Biology  by  Huxley  and  Martin.  The  in- 
troduction of  this  line  of  work  into  high  schools  was  undoubt- 
edly an  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  teachers  to  transfer  into  the 
secondary  schools  the  course  of  study  and  the  methods  in  which 
they  had  been  trained  at  college.  In  fact,  this  tendency  towards 
duplicating  the  first  college  course  in  the  high  school  led  to  the 
use  in  some  schools  of  such  laboratory  manuals  as  Huxley  and 
Martin's  Practical  Biology,  and  Marshall  and  Hurst's  Practical 
Zoology?*  Even  Boyer's  Biology,  which  was  especially  prepared 
for  high-school  work  and  for  many  years  extensively  used,  erred 
in  the  same  direction  and  was  scarcely  less  technical  and  as 
completely  anatomical  as  the  common  manuals  for  college 
work  in  comparative  anatomy. 

With  college  courses  in  zoology  we  are  not  here  directly  con- 
cerned, for  the  secondary  school  offers  quite  independent  prob- 
lems. However,  it  will  be  of  interest  to  turn  aside  college  Ana- 
long  enough  to  note  that  the  introductory  college  Strod^86 
course  in  zoology  from  the  anatomical  standpoint  tory  to  Zoology, 
leads  to  other  courses  in  which  other  phases  of  zoology  are  con- 
sidered, and  in  the  end  some  few  students  may  gain  a  broad 
view  of  the  field  of  zoology,  and  learn  to  think  of  animals  in  the 


1  Even  as  late  as  1901,  at  least  two  prominent  colleges  mentioned 
these  books  in  their  catalogues  as  the  basis  of  high-school  work  leading 
to  their  college-entrance  examinations. 


2/0  THE   TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

various  aspects  of  their  structural  and  functional  relations. 
Clearly,  even  the  colleges  need  a  general  introductory  course 
offering  a  broader  view  for  the  great  mass  of  students  who  can- 
not spend  more  than  one  year  on  a  single  science.  Such  a 
course  seems  to  be  gaining  favor,  and  especially  is  there  being 
manifested  a  decided  tendency  to  study  morphology  and  phy- 
siology in  their  natural  relations.  This  is  the  reason  for  the 
growing  popularity  of  books  such  as  Parker's  Elementary  Biol- 
ogy. Sedgwick  and  Wilson's  General  Biology,  and  Parker  and 
Parker's  Practical  Zoology. 

Within  the  past  five  years  the  value  of  the  study  of  animal 
structure  as  presented  in  many  high-school  courses  has   been 

very   much   questioned : *    and    it    has    frequently 
Criticism  of,  •  •   •     j  ,  i       r    i  i  • 

Anatomical  been  criticised  because  very  much  of  the  subject- 
matter  is  so  technical  as  to  be  of  very  doubtful 
value  to  a  liberally  educated  man  who  has  no  special  reason 
for  being  learned  in  the  details  of  anatomy.  Moreover,  when 
such  exclusive  attention  is  given  to  structure  there  is  no  time 
for  the  pupil  to  learn  anything  about  the  other  phases  of 
zoology;  and  since  the  practical  work  in  anatomy  is  usually 
conducted  with  preserved  specimens,  it  is  far  from  being  inspi- 
ration to  the  study  of  animal  life.  This  objection  to  the  narrow 
view  offered  by  anatomy  has  been  well  stated  by  Professor 
Needham,  of  Lake  Forest  University  :  "  It  has  been  a  popular 
delusion  that  a  term  of  dissections  constitutes  a  proper  elemen- 
tary course.  Such  a  course  was  an  improvement  on  former 
methods  ;  the  study  of  dead  animals  is  far  better  than  no  con- 
.  tact  with  animals  at  all.  But  to  study  animals  with  nature  and 
life  left  out  is  to  ornit  a  phase  of  the  subject  of  deepest  scien- 
tific interest,  of  highest  educational  importance,  and  of  greatest 
pedagogical  utility."  2  It  is  evident  that  an  anatomical  course 
will  give  pupils  who  follow  it  an  extremely  narrow  view  of  the 
animal  kingdom  in  its  varied  aspects. 


1  See  High  School  Bulletin,  No.  2,  University  of  State  of  New  York 
(1899),  PP-  459-476;  Proceedings  N.  E.  A.,  1899,  PP'  806-808. 

2  From  preface  to  Needham's  Lessons  in  Zoology. 


SECONDARY  SCHOOL   STANDPOINT          2?l 

Still  another  objection  to  the  anatomical  course  of  the  high 
schools  is  that  it  involves  too  much  dissection,  the  extensive 
practice  of  which  in  such  schools  no  one  has  sue-  objection  to 
ceeded  in  justifying.  This  work  is  more  or  less  Diss€ctlon' 
distasteful  to  many  young  pupils,  it  is  very  time  consuming,  the 
skill  acquired  is  of  technical  value  only  —  these  are  the  chief 
objections  which  have  been  urged  against  dissection.  The  prac- 
tice is  surely  growing  in  disfavor  so  far  as  the  secondary  schools 
are  concerned ;  in  fact,  there  have  been  indications  of  the 
coming  of  the  other  extreme  in  which  internal  structure  of  all 
animals  is  to  be  excluded  from  elementary  courses  on  animals. 

In  defence  of  the  course  in  anatomy  it  is  often  urged  that  the 
working  out  of  details  of  structure  tends  to  give  valuable  scien- 
tific   training.     This  is   certainly  true;    but   much   A  Defence  of 
of  this  is  purely  special  training,  and  the  facts  of  Anatomy- 
detail  are  only  of  technical  value.     There  is  a  growing  belief 
among  naturalist  teachers  that  much  of  the  anatomical  study 
in  secondary  courses  can    be  replaced   with  more    important 
subject-matter,  and   this  with  no   loss  so  far  as   efficiency  in 
developing  scientific  observing  and  thinking  is  concerned. 

Summarizing,  the  foregoing  considerations  lead  to  the  con- 
clusion that  in  so  far  as  anatomical  study  deals  with  the  great 
facts  of  structure,  both  internal  and  external,  in 
several  typical  common  animals,  it  has  many  good 
features  which  commend  it  for  secondary  education  ;  but  in  so 
far  as  stress  is  placed  upon  details  and  comparisons  of  number, 
minute  structure,  exact  extent  and  position  of  organs  in  some 
dozen  types  of  animals  all  requiring  dissection  or  sectioning, 
the  study  must  be  regarded  not  only  as  of  minor  importance  in 
liberal  secondary  education  but  also  as  using  time  which  should 
be  devoted  to  other  important  phases  of  zoological  study.  But 
since  the  study  of  general  anatomical  structure,  internal  as  well 
as  external,  of  some  animals  is  important  as  giving  a  basis  for 
other  phases  of  zoological  study,  especially  physiology,  therefore 
it  is  necessary  that  this  much  of  the  anatomical  work  should  be 
retained  in  an  elementary  course  in  the  secondary  school. 


2/2  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

Physiology. 

It  is  now  generally  recognized  by  naturalists  that  the  study  of 
Relations  of  ammal  structure  and  that  of  function  are  closely 

structure  and  inter-related.  In  the  words  of  Professor  Whitman,1 
Function. 

of  the  University  of  Chicago: 

"  Morphology  and  physiology  are  two  quite  distinct  sides  of 
biology,  each  with  definite  and  constant  peculiarities  of  method 
and  aim ;  but  these  two  sides  are  only  the  statical  and  dynamical 
aspect  of  one  and  the  same  thing  ;  one  presents  the  features,  the 
other  the  expression.  It  is  only  as  a  matter  of  convenience  that 
these  two  aspects  are  dealt  with  separately  ;  they  are  complemental, 
and  have  their  full  meaning  only  when  united. 

"  The  history  of  morphology  and  physiology  is  one  continuous 
illustration  of  their  interdependence.  When  the  famous  Harvey 
was  asked  what  led  him  to  think  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  he 
at  once  referred  the  original  suggestion  to  one  of  the  morphological 
features  of  the  vascular  apparatus  —  the  valves  and  their  arrange- 
ment. The  hint  furnished  by  structure  was  then  followed  up  and 
tested  by  experiment,  and  the  result  was  a  discovery  that  brought 
the  position  of  valves,  pulsation  of  the  heart,  effects  of  ligatures, 
and  other  facts,  into  rational  relation  to  one  another." 

It  is  true  that  Professor  Whitman  had  especial  reference  to 
the  relation  of  morphology  and  physiology  as  applied  to  the 
Correlation  of  studies  of  advanced  students  and  particularly  to 
an°dP^ysP  original  investigations.  But  the  work  of  the  begin- 
oiogy.  nmg  pupii  in  biology  is  more  a  difference  of  degree 

than  of  kind  ;  and,  even  in  the  most  elementary  nature-study  of 
animals,  structure  and  function  should  be,  and  naturally  are, 
considered  together.  The  pupil  in  the  elementary  and  second- 
ary school  is  intensely  interested  in  finding  that  the  structure  of 
the  grasshopper's  leg  is  connected  with  the  power  of  jumping, 
but  the  pure  morphology  of  the  insect  leg  would  to  the  child  be 
unattractive  and  valueless.  The  structure  of  a  dead  frog's  leg 
would  be  the  basis  of  an  unimportant  lesson  for  the  young  pupil 


1  Fifth  Report  of  Director  of  Marine  Biological  Laboratory  (Boston, 
1892).     Also  in  American  Naturalist  (1892). 


SECONDARY  SCHOOL   STANDPOINT         273 

who  is  not  led  to  consider  the  organ  as  in  action.  Still  another 
illustration  is  the  case  of  the  structure  of  the  blood-system  and 
the  circulation  of  the  blood  ;  as  Professor  Whitman  pointed  out, 
morphology  and  physiology  were  closely  related  in  the  original 
discovery,  and  they  should  likewise  be  related  in  the  re-discov- 
eries of  pupils  who  study  these  organs  in  the  laboratory  ;  other- 
wise the  experience  of  the  pupils  may  largely  repeat  that  of 
those  students  who  preceded  Harvey.  This  is  one  example 
of  numerous  opportunities  for  combining  anatomical  and  physi- 
ological study  in  their  natural  relations. 

In  advocating  the  introduction  of  physiology  into  elementary 
zoology  for  high  schools,  it  is  here  intended  to  include  the 

essential   processes  in   the   general   metabolism   of 

Physiology  in 

the  animal  body,  and  not  to  limit  the  study  to  the   High-school 

Zoology. 

observation  of  movements  and  responses  to  stimuli, 

which  is  the  chief  characteristic  of  the  "  physiological "  study 
referred  to  in  outlines  of  several  elementary  courses  that  in 
recent  years  have  been  prominent.  The  value  of  the  study  of 
movements  and  responses  to  stimuli  must  be  recognized  in  that 
this  is  a  very  practical  way  of  giving  the  pupils  some  idea  con- 
cerning the  methods  of  strictly  physiological  experimentation. 
On  the  other  hand,  study  of  fundamental  physiological  processes 
obviously  admits  of  very  little  practical  work  in  a  direct  line, 
and  the  essential  facts  must  be  presented  by  text-book  and 
teacher.  But  the  morphological  and  experimental  basis  for 
such  study  can  be  strictly  practical,  and  a  logical  presentation 
should  lead  the  pupils  from  observed  facts  to  conclusions,  so 
that  the  discussions  of  the  subject  of  general  physiology  of 
animals  may  be  of  far  greater  value  as  discipline  and  as  informa- 
tion than  a  mere  didactic  exercise. 

The  usual  objection  to  physiological  work  in  secondary 
schools  is  that  the  subject,  unlike  morphology,  cannot  be  pre- 
sented by  a  strictly  laboratory  method.  But  how 

much  knowledge  of  the  fundamentals  of  the  physi-  Physioiogyfor 

High  schools, 
ology  of  general  nutrition  does  the  college  student 

get  directly  from  his  own  laboratory  studies  as  compared  with 

18 


274  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

what  he  accepts  on  the  authority  of  teacher  and  books?  In 
how  many  colleges  is  the  laboratory  method  strictly  and  ex- 
clusively applied  even  in  morphological  teaching?  Certainly 
the  college  methods  do  not  support  any  objection  to  physiologi- 
cal teaching  which  has  a  basis  in  practical  work,  even  though  it 
is  not  possible  for  pupils  to  depend  exclusively  upon  their 
results  in  the  laboratory. 

The  importance  of  interpreting  the  activities  of  the  human 
body  from  the  comparative  standpoint  seems  sufficient  reason 

for  advocating  the  consideration  of  the  fundamental 
Human 
Physiology       principles   of   physiological    action   in    connection 

Comparative  with  the  study  of  elementary  zoology.  No  other 
Standpoint.  ,  .  ...  .  ,  , 

phase  of  zoological  study  arouses  a  deeper  interest 

and  appreciation  or  is  more  spontaneously  applied  by  the  pupils 
in  connection  with  the  study  of  their  own  life-activities.  It  is 
scarcely  necessary  to  offer  a  stronger  reason  for  including 
physiological  study  in  an  elementary  course  of  zoology.1 

In  combining  physiology  with  morphological  work  of  the 
course  in  zoology,  it  is  important  that  the  two  phases  of  study 
Morphology  be  closely  related  throughout  the  course.  The 
oTogy  should  ^ew  text-books  and  teachers'  outlines  which  merely 
reiateifin  suggest  the  tendency  towards  a  union  of  these  two 
Teaching.  phases  of  zoological  study  seem  to  show  that  in 
general  the  attempt  is  to  teach  physiological  ideas  in  the  form 
of  abstract  generalizations  with  little  of  concrete  application  to 
particular  animals  which  are  studied  morphologically.  Some- 
times these  generalized  principles  of  physiology  are  introduced 
before  the  pupils  have  progressed  far  in  the  practical  study  of 
animal  structure,  but  more  often  after  the  completion  of  a 
purely  morphological  course.  An  example  of  the  latter  is  the 
text-book  and  manual  of  elementary  zoology  by  Kingsley,  in 
the  last  chapter  of  which  there  is  an  excellent  statement  of  the 
principles  of  comparative  physiology ;  but  there  is  no  specific 


1  This  will  he  further  developed  in  discussing  the  teaching  of  human 
physiology  in  Chapter  XII. 


SECONDARY  SCHOOL   STANDPOINT          2?$ 

concrete  application  of  those  principles.  Such  a  method  of 
presenting  the  principles  apart  from  concrete  application  is 
open  to  serious  objection.  In  the  light  of  experience  it  may 
well  be  doubted  whether  such  presentation  gives  pupils  a  clear 
conception  of  general  life-activities.  A  physiological  principle 
may  be  formulated  in  a  generalized  way,  and  as  such  may  be 
memorized  by  the  pupils ;  but  that  they  do  not  grasp  the  ideas 
involved  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  they  usually  fail  in  applica- 
tion when  concrete  cases  are  placed  before  them.  Every 
zoologist  knows  in  personal  experience  how  indefinite  and 
unsatisfactory  are  the  ideas  gained  from  reading  generalizations 
if  he  cannot  easily  recall  and  connect  them  with  the  specific 
underlying  facts ;  and  in  order  to  appreciate  the  attitude  of 
the  elementary  pupil,  it  is  only  necessary  to  recognize  the  fact 
that  even  at  the  close  of  a  year's  course  the  pupil  has  not  the 
definite  remembrance  of  the  details  of  structure  which  are 
necessary  for  concrete  illustration  and  application  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  physiology.  In  order  to  give  the  clearest  possible 
conception  of  physiological  principles  it  is  essential  that  struc- 
tures and  functions  should  be  studied  in  their  natural  relations. 
The  principles  of  physiology  should  be  introduced  with  the  first 
animal  which  is  studied  morphologically,  and  each  principle 
as  introduced  should  receive  concrete  application.  The  study 
can  easily  and  quickly  be  made  comparative  as  successive  types 
of  animals  are  taken  up ;  and  finally  such  specific  and  com- 
parative studies  may  be  made  to  lead  to  a  direct  application 
of  the  principles  of  comparative  physiology  to  the  activities  of 
the  human  body. 

Animal  Ecology.1 

Still  another  important  phase  of  zoloogical  study  which  has 
recently  become    prominent  in   education   is   that   of  animal 


1  Ecology,  ethology,  bionomics,  and  natural  history  have  been  used 
within  recent  years  quite  synonymously.  Natural  history  has  been  used 
in  so  many  senses  (see  Huxley's  essay  On  Study  of  Biology)  that  to 
apply  it  to  a  special  phase  of  zoology  would  lead  to  endless  confusion  ; 


2/6  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

ecology  —  the  science  dealing  with  the  relation  of  animals  to 
their  environment.  Although  an  attempt  to  classify  definitely 
jjjgg  of  and  explain  in  terms  of  physiology  and  psychology 

Ecology.  tne  facts  of  animal  relation  to  environment  marks  a 
quite  recent  stage  of  the  development  of  zoological  science, 
and  hence  animal  ecology  is  popularly  regarded  as  a  new 
science,  the  truth  is  that  a  vast  mass  of  information  in  this 
line  has  long  been  in  existence  as  a  prominent  part  of  the  so- 
called  "natural  history."  In  fact,  long  before  there  was  any 
exact  science  of  zoology  ecological  facts  were  being  accumu- 
lated by  patient  observers  of  animal  life  in  its  familiar  forms ; 
and  many  a  popular  old-time  book  bearing  the  title  Natural 
History  owed  its  charm  largely  to  the  accounts  of  animals  as 
living  creatures  with  interesting  habits  of  life  and  life-histories 
adapting  them  to  their  environmental  conditions.  It  is  true 
that  such  books  also  contained  much  information  concerning 
structure,  especially  external ;  but  this,  too,  largely  derived 
its  interest  from  ecological  considerations. 

The  psychological  phase  of  the  study  of  animal  life,  dealing 
with  nervous  activity,  instincts,  and   intelligence,  is  obviously 

closely  associated  with  problems  of  ecology :  in 
Relation  of  f  3 ,  *  6<7  ' 

Psychology      fact,    these   nervous    phenomena   constitute   to   a 

great  extent  the  fundamental  basis  for  relation 
between  animals  and  their  environment.  It  is  this  psychical 
aspect  which  makes  animal  ecology  so  much  more  intricately 
complex  than  plant  ecology.  A  "  plant  society "  may  be 
analyzed  from  the  standpoint  of  its  chemical  and  physical 
relations  to  the  environment,  but  the  ecology  of  social  animals 
is  vastly  more  complicated  by  the  added  nervous  or  psychical 


and  there  is  now  general  agreement  that  it  should  be  applied  only  to 
general  accounts  of  animals,  as  defined  in  the  earlier  part  of  this  chapter. 
At  present  there  is  no  agreement  as  to  choice  between  ecology,  bio- 
nomics, and  ethology.  In  favor  of  animal  ecology  is  that  the  phrase 
corresponds  to  plant  ecology  just  as  plant  physiology  to  animal  phy- 
siology; but  in  opposition  it  has  been  urged  that  the  problems  of  the 
animal  side  are  not  parallel  to  those  offered  by  plants.  See  article  by 
W.  M.  Wheeler,  in  Science,  N.  s.,  Vol.  XV.,  No.  390,  pp.  971-976.  1902. 


SECONDARY  SCHOOL   STANDPOINT          2JJ 

factors  which  at  times  seem  to  refuse  to  be  governed  by  the 
chemical  and  physical  environment.  The  principles  under- 
lying these  phenomena  associated  with  the  internal  working 
of  the  nervous  mechanisms  are  for  the  advanced  student  most 
conveniently  considered  under  psychology,  independently  of 
ecological  applications.  But,  aside  from  the  questions  of  the 
relations  between  the  psychic  life  of  lower  animals  and  man, 
it  is  in  the  application  to  animal  ecology  —  to  the  behavior  of 
animals  under  natural  environmental  conditions  —  that  the  ad- 
vanced student  finds  intensely  interesting  applications  of  the 
principles  presented  in  psychological  works  such  as  those 
named  in  the  chapter  on  "Zoological  Books." 

Ecology  is  so  closely  related  to  other  phases  of  zoology  that 
so  far  as  elementary  instruction  is  concerned  it  is  often  im- 
practicable to  draw  any  sharp  division  line.  The 

}  Relation  to 

problems  of  ecology  are  centred  around  the  living  other  Phases 

......  ,.  ,     .          3    of  Zoology. 

animal  in  relation  to  its  surroundings,  but  obviously 

even  the  elementary  considerations  of  the  activity  of  any  part 
of  an  animal  necessarily  involves  at  least  the  external  structure 
of  the  organ.  For  illustration,  let  us  take  the  characteristic 
adaptive  structures  and  movements  of  the  legs  of  the  grass- 
hopper. The  internal  structure,  with  its  mechanism  of  muscles 
and  the  hidden  activities  involved  in  the  production  of  the 
movements  expressed  externally,  furnishes  problems  which 
belong  to  the  domains  of  morphology  and  physiology.  With 
these  internal  phenomena  ecology  is  not  as  directly  concerned 
as  it  is  with  the  external  structure  which  visibly  stands  in  direct 
correlation  with  the  characteristic  adaptive  movements  ;  but  it 
is  evident  that  ecological  problems  are  closely  related  to  the 
facts  of  internal  structure  and  physiology  in  which  in  the  ulti- 
mate analysis  explanations  are  to  be  sought.  These  intimate  re- 
lations between  ecology  and  other  phases  of  zoology  lead  to 
some  suggestions  regarding  the  study  of  living  animals,  for 
animal  ecology  is  characteristically  the  study  of  animals  alive 
under  natural  conditions,  and  as  such  in  decided  contrast  to  the 
anatomical  and  physiological  phases  of  zoology. 


2/8  THE    TEACHING    OF  ZOOLOGY 

In  conducting  ecological  study  external  structure  must  be 
considered  as  a  basis  for  the  ecological  interpretation.  Meas- 
Structure  the  wring  the  distance  over  which  a  grasshopper  can 
s?udyfof  jump  or  observing  other  activities  of  animals  is  an 
Ecology.  exercise  of  scientific  value  only  when  correlated 
with  knowledge  concerning  the  general  external  structure  of  the 
animal  so  that  the  adaptations  will  be  evident.  Logically,  then, 
some  knowledge  of  a  structure  should  precede  inquiry  into 
its  function  or  adaptation ;  but  in  elementary  teaching  the 
principle  of  interest-  may  demand  a  reversal  of  this  order. 
Probably  most  young  pupils  will  be  more  interested  in  a  grass- 
hopper's leg  after  they  have  witnessed  its  activity.  However, 
observations  on  the  adaptive  structure  and  function  should  be 
carefully  correlated.  Unless  they  can  be  studied  hand  in  hand, 
as  when  living  animals  are  available  for  use  in  the  laboratory,  it 
seems  better  to  precede  the  ecological  study  with  some  an- 
atomical work.  The  best  preparation  for  the  appreciation  of 
study  of  any  animal  in  the  field  is  a  preliminary  examination  of 
external  structure  and  activities  so  far  as  these  can  be  deter- 
mined from  living  and  preserved  materials  in  the  laboratory. 
Such  preparation  will  add  greatly  to  the  scientific  significance 
of  a  study  of  animals  in  their  native  haunts ;  and  there  is  evi- 
dence that  it  intensifies  rather  than  lessens  interest. 

As  to  the  value  of  the  study  of  living  animals  in  their 
ecological  relations,  we  might  defend  it  on  the  ground  of 
economic  importance  of  the  knowledge  obtained, 
Study  of  notably  in  the  case  of  insects;  and  also  in  that  the 
facts  of  environmental  relationships  aid  the  advanced 
student  in  interpreting  some  great  problems  of  zoology,  and 
especially  are  they  full  of  significance  in  relation  to  the  questions 
of  organic  evolution.  With  reference  to  the  value  of  animal 
ecology  for  the  general  student  of  animals,  the  preface  to  Jordan 
and  Kellogg's  well-known  Animal  Life  is  especially  to  the  point 
when  it  is  stated  that : 

"The  beginning  student  should  know  that  the  whole  life  of  ani- 
mals, that  all  the  variety  of  animal  form  and  habit,  is  an  expression 


SECONDARY  SCHOOL   STANDPOINT          279 

of  the  fitness  of  animals  to  the  varied  circumstances  and  conditions 
of  their  living,  and  that  this  adapting  and  fitting  of  their  life  to  the 
conditions  of  living  come  about  inevitably  and  naturally,  and  that 
it  can  be  readily  studied  and  largely  understood.  The  ways  and 
course  of  this  fitting  are  the  greatest  facts  of  life  excepting  the  fact 
of  life  itself.  In  this  kind  of  study  of  animals  every  observation 
of  fact  in  animal  structure  or  behavior  leads  to  a  search  for  the 
significance,  or  meaning  in  the  life  of  the  animal,  of  this  fact. 
The  veriest  beginner  can  be,  and  ought  to  be,  an  independent  ob- 
server and  thinker.  It  is  this  phase  of  the  study  of  zoology  which 
appeals  most  strongly  to  the  beginning  student,  the  phase  which 
treats  of  the  why  and  how  of  animal  form  and  habit." 

But  aside  from  any  practical  value  of  ecological  knowledge 
and  the  relation  of  its  facts  to  those  of  other  phases  of  zoology, 
its  place  as  an  important  part  of  elementary  zoolog-  General  In 
ical  instruction  may  be  justified  on  the  ground  that 
it  is  undoubtedly  the  most  interesting  part  of  all  Facts- 
zoology  not  only  for  young  pupils  but  also  for  the  majority  of 
citizens  of  liberal  education.  As  has  been  said,  it  is  the  eco- 
logical phase  which  constitutes  the  essence  and  the  charm  of 
the  popular  books  on  natural  history,  and  the  widespread 
interest  in  these  is  sufficient  proof  of  the  general  demand  for 
information  about  animal  life.  Of  all  the  phases  of  zoological 
study,  it  is  the  ecological  which  is  directly  concerned  in  the 
aesthetical  and  moral  values  discussed  in  the  preceding  chapter ; 
and  from  these  alone  we  may  derive  sufficient  justification  for 
emphasizing  in  all  elementary  courses  the  ecological  phase 
which  brings  the  pupils  so  directly  into  contact  with  animals  as 
living  creatures. 

Teachers  will  find  valuable  suggestions  for  practical  work  in 
this  line  in  the  following  books  :  Needham's  Lessons  in  Zool- 
ogy and  Outdoor  Studies  (A.  B.  Co.)  ;  Suggestions  suggestions 
to  Teachers,  accompanying  Jordan  and  Kellogg's  forTeacners- 
Animal  Life  (Appleton)  ;  Comstock's  Insect  Life  (Appleton)  ; 
Chapman's  Bird  Life,  Popular  Edition,  1901  (Appleton)  ;  Chap- 
ters XXXI.  to  XXXIII.  in  Kellogg's  Elementary  Zoologv  (Holt)  ; 
French's  Animal  Activities  (Longmans)  ;  and  Colton's  new 
Practical  Zoology  (Heath). 


280  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

The  methods  and  point  of  view  of  teachers  of  plant  ecology 
are  often  suggestive  to  the  teachers  of  the  animal  side.  The 
ecological  materials  in  Coulter's  Plant  Relations  (Appleton), 
and  Bergen's  Foundations  of  Botany  (Ginn),  and  their  accom- 
panying handbooks  for  teachers,  should  be  familiar  to  all 
teachers  of  animal  ecology. 

For  pupils'  supplementary  reading  in  the  line  of  animal  ecol- 
ogy Thomson's  Study  of  Animal  Life,  Part  I.,  and  Jordan  and 
Reading  for  Kellogg's  Animal  Life  are  unsurpassed.  Many 
Pupils.  other  books  named  in  the  lists  on  natural  history 

and  ecology  in  the  chapter  on  "  Zoological  Books  "  are  valuable 
for  both  teachers  and  pupils. 

Classification. 

For  many  years  the  study  of  classification  of  animals  has  not 
been  fashionable  in  most  colleges  and  consequently  in  most 
high  schools.  The  term  has  unfortunately  become  popularly 
associated  with  the  memorizing  of  polysyllabic  scientific  names 
of  animals.  On  this  side  of  classification  I  have  comparatively 
little  to  recommend  for  practice  in  secondary  schools ;  but  I 
wish  to  call  attention  to  another  aspect  which  has  been  gener- 
ally overlooked  by  teachers.  I  shall  quote  the  exact  words  of 
Professor  S.  A.  Forbes  of  the  University  of  Illinois. 

"That  a  study  of  the  classification  of  animals  is  not  only  possi- 
ble, as  every  one  admits,  but  may  be  made  highly  profitable  to  the 
Forbes*s  common  school  pupil,  if  properly  conducted,  I  have 
View.  long  been  perfectly  sure.  We  must  beware,  however, 

of  confusing  two  quite  distinct  and  very  different  things :  the 
mere  learning  of  a  correct  classification  based  on  all  the  facts  of 
morphology  as  interpreted  by  the  highest  zoological  authorities  ; 
and  the  effort  to  classify  made  by  the  pupil  himself,  as  a  practice 
in  generalization.  I  have  yet  to  learn  where  in  the  common  school 
course  this  training  in  generalization,  this  practice  in  the  forming 
of  large  and  complicated  concepts  out  of  concrete  materials,  in 
tracing  from  point  to  point  the  threads  of  the  web  of  relation  by 
which  unlike  things  are  unified  and  made  into  larger  wholes  again 
capable  of  being  compared  among  themselves,  and  so  built  up  into 
higher  and  higher  concepts,  —  I  have  yet  to  learn  where  this  in- 


SECONDARY  SCHOOL   STANDPOINT          28 1 

valuable  part  of  a  sound  education  is  now  commonly  provided  for. 
The  doing  of  this  first  on  things  and  then  on  ideas,  is  a  most 
profitable  exercise,  and  the  habit  of  doing  it  spontaneously  is  a 
large  part  of  the  education  of  the  thinking  man." 

An  objection  to  the  study  of  classification  recorded  in  the 

report l  of  a  committee  of  the  National  Educational   Objection  to 

...  .  Study  of  Clas- 

Association  deserves  attention:  sification. 

"  The  systematic  method  involves  the  detailed  study  of  a  group 
or  groups  in  the  most  careful  manner  from  the  taxonomic  stand- 
point. This  plan  has  the  advantage  of  bringing  the  pupil  in  con- 
tact with  the  objects  studied,  and  trains  powers  of  discrimination 
and  analysis,  but  it  gives  the  student  an  exaggerated  idea  of  the 
importance  of  certain  structural  parts  and  of  limited  animal  groups, 
and  fails  to  develop  general  biological  ideas." 

With  regard  to  this  objection  it  may  be  urged  that  it  applies 
particularly  to  exclusive  and  excessive  dependence  upon  the  syste- 
matic method  —  a  common  tendency  among  the  teachers  who 
make  any  attempt  at  teaching  classification.  But  that  there  is 
great  value  in  classification  studied  in  the  way  suggested  by  Pro- 
fessor Forbes  no  one  will  deny,  and  limitations  of  the  work  to 
certain  of  the  more  favorable  groups  (e.  g.,  insects,  decapods, 
crustaceans)  will  avoid  the  dangers  which  have  been  supposed 
to  lurk  in  the  study  of  systematic  zoology. 

There  are  some  taxonomic  names  which  are  so  commonly 
used  in  general  literature  that  they  deserve  to  be  emphasized  in 
teaching  zoology.  The  names  of  all  phyla  except  gome  impor- 
the  modern  sub-divisions  of  the  "  worms  "  ;  the  tant  Names' 
names  of  prominent  classes  of  arthropods,  mollusks,  and  verte- 
brates, but  not  those  of  "  worms,"  protozoans,  and  I  feel  very 
doubtful  about  echinoderms  and  ccelenterates ;  the  names  of 
some  familiar  orders,  especially  of  insects  and  vertebrate  classes — 
these  are  about  all  the  names  in  general  classification  which 
should  be  especially  emphasized  in  high-school  work.  But  I 
would  make  the  pupils  familiar  with  the  general  classification  of 


1  Proceedings  N.  E.  A.,  1899,  p.  806. 


282  THE    TEACHING    OF  ZOOLOGY 

animals  as  illustrated  by  the  arrangement  of  systematic  treatises 
like  Parker  and  Haswell's  Text-book  of  Zoology,  and  this  in  order 
to  teach  pupils  how  to  use  zoological  books  of  reference.  In 
order  to  familiarize  pupils  with  names  of  species  and  genera 
and  larger  groups  I  should  use  both  the  technical  and  common 
names  of  every  animal  studied,  but  I  see  no  reason  for  insisting 
upon  memorizing  them. 

For  the  basis  of  practical  studies  of  classification,  as  suggested 
by  the  above  quotation  from  Forbes,  I  should  use  decapods, 
Practical  starting  with  the  crayfish  as  suggested  in  Huxley's 
Studies.  Crayfish  ;  or  vertebrates,  starting  with  the  frog  and 

following  the  thought  of  the  last  chapter  in  Part  I.  of  Parker  and 
Parker's  Practical  Zoology;  or  representatives  of  insect  orders. 
Using  the  actual  animals  from  one  of  these  groups,  I  should 
lead  the  pupils  to  compare  and  group  the  animals  on  the  basis 
of  resemblances,  thus  laying  their  own  foundation  for  ideas  of 
classification. 

Embryology. 

The  study  of  animal  development  has  rarely  been  emphasized 
in  elementary  courses  in  zoology  for  secondary  schools.     Ordi- 
narily that  phase  of  life-history  which  deals  with  the 

commonly  development  of  the  egsr  into  the  individual  animal  is 
neglected. 

passed  over  hastily ;  and,  in  fact,  it  is  no  uncommon 

thing  to  find  that  high-school  teachers  carefully  avoid  reference  to 
sex  and  reproduction  of  animals.  As  an  example,  a  well-known 
laboratory  manual  prepared  for  use  in  secondary  schools  omits 
all  reference  to  reproductive  organs  in  animals  above  Hydra 
—  even  in  describing  an  earthworm  with  dorsal  body-wall  re- 
moved. This  was  probably  an  intentional  —  not  accidental  — 
omission  ;  for  in  an  accompanying  handbook  for  teachers  there 
is  this  explanation :  "  The  question  of  sex  has  been  left  largely 
to  the  tact  of  the  teacher.  We  do  not  believe  in  presenting 
the  play  of  Hamlet  with  Hamlet  left  out,  but  there  are  serious 
objections  to  giving  this  question  adequate  place  in  a  manual 
prepared  for  mixed  classes  of  young  people.  The  studies  have 


SECONDARY  SCHOOL   STANDPOINT         283 

been  arranged  in  such  a  way  that  it  is  hoped  no  one's  false 
modesty  will  be  shocked,  and  it  has  been  left  for  the  individual 
teacher  to  make  any  desired  additions  rather  than  to  be  obliged 
to  pass  over  in  silence  some  parts  of  the  text." 

The  teacher  of  biology  in  high  schools  must  recognize  the 
widespread  existence  of  a  so-called  "  false  modesty  "  whose 
dictates,  if  obeyed,  would  force  avoidance  of  dis- 


cussion  of  the  subject  of  animal  reproduction.     Of  Facts  should 

be  taught. 
course,  there  are  no  such  limitations  in  the  science 

of  biology,  but  pupils  are  not  specialists  in  science.  Even  at 
the  high-school  age  they  have  acquired  something  of  the  "false 
modesty  "  which  the  teacher  must  avoid  "  shocking."  How- 
ever, I  regard  the  above  quotation  as  expressing  an  extreme 
attitude.  "  False  modesty  "  is  an  outgrowth  of  human  life, 
and  in  the  minds  of  young  pupils  has  little  real  existence  with 
reference  to  lower  forms  of  life.  I  have  seen  many  classes  of 
"  mixed  "  pupils  studying  and  reciting  about  essential  facts  of 
reproduction  in  Hydra,  earthworm,  crayfish,  and  frog,  and 
rarely  have  I  seen  any  indication  that  any  pupil  regarded  these 
facts  as  any  more  "  forbidden  "  than  knowledge  of  other 
organs  and  processes.  It  is  true  that  some  few  individuals 
show  some  evidence  of  embarrassment  at  the  first  mention  of 
sex  or  reproduction,  but  all  soon  learn  to  have  respect  for  such 
facts  as  an  essential  part  of  the  science  which  they  are  study- 
ing —  a  result  which  is  certainly  valuable.  A  sincere  and  seri: 
ous  teacher  who  delicately  but  firmly  handles  the  essential 
truths  about  the  reproduction  of  animals,  and  who  shows  the 
same  scientific  spirit  which  is  manifested  in  dealing  with  the 
other  systems  of  organs  will  impress  upon  the  pupils  the  fact  in 
the  realm  of  biological  science  all  facts  are  important  and 
worthy  of  serious  consideration.  On  the  other  hand,  any  attempt 
to  avoid  all  reference  to  the  facts  of  animal  reproduction  is  sure 
to  give  pupils  the  false  impression  that  even  in  scientific  study 
there  is  something  "  indelicate  "  about  even  the  lower  forms  of 
animal  life.  The  reproductive  process  is  necessarily  prominent 
in  zoology  and  cannot  be  entirely  overlooked  by  the  pupils. 


284  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

Here  is  an  opportunity  for  science  study  to  work  against  the 
very  common  misunderstanding  of  a  subject  about  which  every 
liberally  educated  citizen  should  have  some  scientific  knowl- 
edge;  and  I  would  urge  that  the  essential  facts  of  the  repro- 
duction of  animals,  as  illustrated  by  selected  types,  should 
constitute  an  integral  part  of  any  course  in  zoology  which  aims 
to  give  the  information  most  valuable  for  general  education. 

With  regard  to  the  function  of  text-books  in  teaching  this 
subject,  I  cannot  agree  with  the  authors  quoted  above.  If 

there  is  any  difficulty  in  presenting   the   subject, 
Attitude  of  i  •        i  • 

the  Text-         surely  a  printed  account  is  better  than  the  explana- 
tions of  teachers  who  may  be  amateurs  in  science 
teaching.     At  any  rate  the  attitude  of  the  text-book  may  well 
prepare  the  way  for  the  "  tact "  of  the  teacher. 

Considering  in  detail  the  facts  to  be  taught,  all  teachers  will 
agree  that  the  secondary  course  is  not  the  place  for  the  detailed 
The  Facts  to  examination  of  cleavage,  germ-layers,  etc.,  which 
be  taught.  characterizes  the  embryological  work  in  colleges. 
However  there  are  many  important  and  interesting  facts  of 
animal  development  which  may  be  profitably  presented  in  an 
elementary  course  in  high  school.  Such  facts  as  those  relating 
to  spontaneous  generation  ;  asexual  reproduction  in  lower  forms  ; 
the  general  principles  of  sexual  reproduction,  involving  the 
leading  facts  about  development  from  a  one-celled  egg ;  the  na- 
ture and  effect  of  fertilization ;  parthenogenesis  among  arthro- 
pods ',  cell-division  in  development ;  the  heredity  of  general 
resemblances,  —  these  are  examples  of  topics  about  which 
some  knowledge  is  at  least  as  useful  to  liberally  cultured  citi- 
zens as  that  from  any  other  phase  of  zoology.  All  these  and 
more  may  be  presented  in  a  form  elementary  enough  for  the 
high-school  pupil,  notwithstanding  that  this  is  the  approach  to 
some  of  the  profoundest  problems  of  zoology.  I  would  recom- 
mend that  some  of  the  great  general  principles  of  embryology 
be  introduced  early  in  the  course,  preferably  in  connection 
with  the  study  of  some  invertebrate.  These  general  principles 
should  be  briefly  applied  to  each  animal  studied.  The  general 


SECONDARY  SCHOOL   STANDPOINT         285 

features  of  the  embryology  and  life-history  of  crayfish,  earth- 
worm, Hydra,  fish,  frog,  bird,  and  finally  viviparous  salaman- 
ders, snakes,  and  lizards  will  lead  up  to  the  internal  development 
of  the  mammals.  In  mixed  classes  it  is  best  to  stop  here ;  but 
the  tactful  and  thoughtful  teacher  will  have  no  difficulty  in  briefly 
but  clearly  indicating  that  the  mammals  offer  no  exception  to 
the  great  general  principles  which  apply  to  the  development  of 
the  individual  animals  of  the  lower  forms  previously  studied. 

All  this  study  of  animal  development,  likewise  all  other  ele- 
mentary zoological  study,  should   be   conducted  to   the    end 
that  the  great  facts  may  come  to  have  in  the  pupils'   ufe_History 
mind  a  profound  significance  in  relation  to  the  sum-  of  Man> 
mit  of  the  animal  series  —  man.     And  concerning  the  bearing 
of  zoological  study  upon  the  great  facts  which  relate  to  the 
beginning  of  the  individual  human  life,   I  find  my  views  in 
complete  agreement  with  those  of  Professor  W.  S.  Hall,1  of 
Northwestern  University  : 

"  Questions  of  life  history,  reproduction,  whence,  how  and 
whither  would  better  not  be  discussed.  The  courses  in  botany 
and  zoology  have  sharpened  the  senses  and  incited  the  thoughtful 
questioning  of  the  pupil.  When  he  comes  to  the  study  of  man, 
leave  him  alone  with  his  thoughts  in  these  deeper  and  more  delicate 
questions,  and  he  will  arrive  at  the  truth." 

Palaeontology. 

The  palaeontological  phase  of  zoology  has  rarely  been  referred 
to  in  connection  with  elementary  courses  for  secondary  schools. 

The  limitations  of  time  make  it  impossible  to  under- 
Some  Impor- 

take  any  scientific  study  of  fossil  animals;  but  I   tant  Facts  of 
.  ,         *        .      .        ,      .  f  .     ,    ,; .          Palaeontology 

wish  to  emphasize  the  importance  of  including  in  a 

zoological  course  some  simple  general  facts.  It  requires  very 
little  extra  time  to  call  attention  to  the  methods  by  which  the 
animal  remains  were  preserved,  the  fact  that  probably  few  in- 
dividuals were  fossilized,  and  some  general  facts  about  the 
different  ages  represented  by  animal  fossils.2  After  such  an 


1  In  School  Science,  Vol.  I.,  p.  61.     April,  1901. 

2  Part  III.  of  Brigham's  Text-Book  of  Geology  (Appleton)  is  valuable 


286  THE   TEACHING  OF  ZOOLOGY 

introduction  to  the  general  principles  it  is  easy  to  turn  aside 
for  a  few  minutes  occasionally  in  order  to  call  attention  to  the 
forerunners  of  existing  animals,  illustrating  whenever  possible 
by  means  of  fossils,  models,  or  pictures. 

Philosophical  Zoology  —  Evolution. 

The  question  whether  the  doctrine  of  evolution  should  be 
generally  taught  in  schools  first  attracted  widespread  attention 

owing  to  some  criticisms  by  Rudolph  Virchow,  of 
lution  in  Berlin,  in  an  address  on  "  Freedom  of  Science  in  the 

Modern  State  "  delivered  at  the  fiftieth  meeting  of 
the  German  Naturalists  and  Physicians,  in  1877.  While  Vir- 
chow did  not  then  directly  repudiate  the  theory,  he  distinctly 
stated  that  it  was  not  proven  and  therefore  should  not  be  taught 
authoritatively  to  young  people.  In  a  prefatory  note  to  the 
English  translation  of  Ernst  Haeckel's  famous  reply,  "  Freedom 
in  Science  and  Teaching"  (1878),  Huxley  expressed  the  follow- 
ing opinion : 

"  Far  be  it  from  me  to  suggest  that  it  is  desirable  that  the  incul- 
cation of  the  doctrine  of  evolution  should  be  made  a  prominent 
Huxley's  feature  of  general  education.  I  agree  with  Professor 
Opinion.  Virchow  so  far,  but  for  very  different  reasons.  It  is 

not  that  I  think  the  evidence  of  that  doctrine  insufficient,  but  that 
J  doubt  whether  it  is  the  business  of  a  teacher  to  plunge  the  young 
mind  into  difficult  problems  concerning  the  origin  of  the  existing 
condition  of  things.  I  am  disposed  to  think  that  the  brief  period 
of  school-life  would  be  better  spent  in  obtaining  an  acquaintance 
with  nature  as  it  is  ;  in  fact,  in  laying  a  firm  foundation  for  further 
knowledge  which  is  needed  for  the  critical  examination  of  the 
dogmas,  whether  scientific  or  anti-scientific,  which  are  presented  to 
the  adult  mind.  At  present  education  proceeds  in  the  reverse  way ; 
the  teacher  makes  the  most  confident  assertions  on  precisely  those 
subjects  of  which  he  knows  least ;  while  the  habit  of  weighing  evi- 
dence is  discouraged,  and  the  means  of  forming  a  sound  judgment 
are  carefully  withheld  from  the  pupil." 


for  reference  and  supplementary  reading  by  pupils,  and  is  an  excellent 
introduction  to  palaeontological  facts  which  deserve  a  place  in  a  course 
of  elementary  zoology. 


SECONDARY  SCHOOL  STANDPOINT         287 

Within  recent  years  there  has  been  a  growing  tendency  to 
advocate  that  some  of  the  leading  points  of  the  general  doctrine 
of  organic  evolution  should  be  taught  in  our  second-  what  may  be 
ary  schools.  Nevertheless,  most  American  zoolo-  JJrningCEvo- 
gists  will,  I  think,  agree  with  Huxley  that  it  should  lution> 
not  be  made  a  prominent  feature  because  the  problems  are  too 
difficult  for  the  young  mind.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  this  objec- 
tion refers  simply  to  evolution  as  a  formal  doctrine,  and  does 
not  necessarily  apply  to  the  evidences,  some  of  which  may  be 
suggested  even  by  very  elementary  study.  We  may  urge  the 
importance  of  marshalling  the  materials  so  that  pupils  must  be 
led  to  see  resemblances  between  animals.  As  an  explanation 
of  such  similarity,  we  may  point  to  blood  relationship  by  which 
in  our  every-day  life  we  naturally  explain  resemblances  between 
human  individuals.  But  I  seriously  doubt  whether  it  is  advis- 
able in  secondary  work  to  carry  the  interpretation  beyond  the 
authoritative  statement  that  naturalists  now  regard  such  evidence 
as  pointing  towards  common  descent  of  animals.  I  know  that 
it  is  a  subject  which  often  arouses  the  thoughtful  questioning  of 
some  of  the  brighter  pupils,  but  these  often  lead  teachers  far  into 
discussion  of  many  highly  theoretical  problems  which  are  certain 
to  be  confusing  to  young  minds  ;  and  it  seems  to  me  far  better 
to  adhere  firmly  to  study  of  actual  conditions  where  some  facts 
may  simply  point  in  the  direction  of  evolution.  This  will  lay 
the  best  foundation  for  later  studies  of  theories  of  evolution, 
which,  as  we  have  already  seen  in  Chapter  I.,  are  of  general 
interest. 

Considering  more  specifically  what  should  and  should  not  be 
taught  concerning  evolution,  we  note  first  that  the  decapods, 
insects,  and  vertebrates  are  certainly  best  for  com-  Anatomical 
parison  intended  to  bring  out  the  anatomical  re-  Resemblances. 
semblances  between  allied  animals.1  The  pupils  should  be  led 
to  see  the  homologies  in  the  external  structure,  particularly 


1  I  shall  later  (p.  346)   refer  to  the  value  of  such  study  of  a  limited 
group  as  compared  with  that  of  a  series  of  phyletic  types. 


288  THE   TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

in  the  appendages  of  decapods  and  insects  and  in  the  skele- 
tons of  vertebrates.  For  such  studies  of  affinities  the  lobster, 
crayfish,  prawn,  and  various  species  of  crab  form  one  good 
series ;  the  grasshopper,  cricket,  and  cockroach  a  second ; 
these  compared  with  insects  of  other  orders  form  a  third ;  and 
skeletons  of  frogs,  lizards,  birds,  bat,  dog  or  cat,  and  man  a 
fourth  series. 

These  anatomical  comparisons  suggesting  relationship  may  be 
reinforced  by  reference  to  the  similarities  of  embryos.  The 

long  abdomen  of  the  young  crab,  the  bifurcated 
Embryologi-  °  J 

cai  Resem-       walking-legs  of  the  young  lobster,  the  gill-slits  and 

general  similarity  of  external  structure  in  vertebrate 
embryos  of  all  classes  —  these  are  simple  embryological  facts 
suggestive  of  evolution  which  are  intensely  interesting  and  may 
be  comprehended  in  a  general  way  by  pupils  in  the  secondary 
school. 

Occasional  facts  on  the  palseontological  side  may  be  brought 
incidentally  to  the  attention  of  pupils  in  order  to  indicate  the 
Palzeontoiogi-  progressive  development  of  animals  in  the  past 
cai  Evidences,  history  of  the  earth  ;  but  time  and  the  age  of  pupils 
will  not  permit  more  than  general  suggestions. 

More  than  these  suggestions  of  evidences  of  evolution  is 

not,  I  believe,  profitable  in  the  secondary  school. 
Limitations.  _. 

Obviously  it  is  useless  to  attempt  to  demonstrate 

relationships  between  the  various  phyla  ;  and  it  is  no  more 
than  the  truth  to  point  out  that  great  differences  of  structure 
exist.  For  high-school  pupils  there  is  a  great  gap  between 
vertebrates  and  lower  forms  ;  and  let  it  remain  so  rather  than 
attempt  to  bridge  the  chasm  with  the  debatable  hypotheses 
which  are  comprehensible  only  by  advanced  students.  In 
short,  I  do  not  believe  that  high-school  work  in  zoology  should 
attempt  demonstration  of  evidences  of  evolution  except  within 
the  boundaries  of  a  few  limited  groups  where  the  leading  facts 
can  be  discovered  by  the  pupils  themselves. 

On  the  side  of  the  factors  of  evolution  the  subject  is  clearly 
beyond  high-school  pupils.  Evidences  of  the  struggle  for  exist- 


SECONDARY  SCHOOL  STANDPOINT         289 

ence  and  consequent  survival  of  the  fittest,  adaptation  to  environ- 
ment in  relation  to  this  struggle  and  survival,  variations  of  in- 
dividuals, and  the  influence  of  man's  selection  in  Factors  of 
domesticated  races  —  these  are  the  leading   points   Evolution- 
concerned  with  the  factors  which  it  may  be  profitable  to  notice 
in  a  secondary  school  ;  but  little  more  than  suggestions  in  these 
lines,  are  possible. 

"Does  evolution  mean  that  man  came  from  mon-   Descent  of 
keys?"     This  is  always  asked   when  the   subject    Man- 
of  evolution  is  touched.     Here   is    uncertain   ground   for   the 
teacher,  for  any  discussion  of  the  evolution  of  man  is  likely  to 
lead  into  most  intricate   problems.     If  the    subject  is   brought 
forward  by  the  pupils,  I  believe  that  it  should  be  dismissed  with 
the  single  statement  that  the  undoubted  structural  resemblances 
between  man  and  apes  suggest  descent  from  a  common  ances- 
tor, but  that  mentally  there  are  vast   differences  which  are  not 
yet  understood. 

Finally,  I  believe  that  it  is  undesirable  that  the  teacher  should 
appear  to  stand  in  the  position  of  an  advocate  attempting  to 
convince  pupils  of  the  truth  of  evolution.  Whether 


or  not  the  pupils  accept  the  theory  on  authority  is   an  Advocate 
of  no  consequence,  but  it  is  important  that  they  get 
a  glimpse  of  the  lines  of  evidences  which  may  lead  them  later  to 
a  broader  view  of  nature  and  natural  processes. 

For  further  suggestions  regarding  facts  of  evolution  which 
may  be  presented  in  a  secondary  school  see  Chapter  XXX.  in 
Kellogg's  Elementary  Zoology  ;  page  264  in  Need-  References  for 
ham's  Lessons  in  Zoology  ;  Chapter  XVI.  in  Jordan  Teachers. 
and  Kellogg's  Animal  Life  ;  Romanes's  Scientific  Evidences  of 
Organic  Evolution  and  his  Darwin  and  after  Darwin,  Vol.  I. 
The  illustrations  in  the  latter  volume  are  especially  instructive. 
Other  books  for  general  readers  are  named  in  the  chapter  on 
"Zoological  Books." 

Economic  Zoology. 

The  importance  of  the  economic  phase  of  zoology  in  general 
education  has  been  discussed  in  a  general  way  in  the  preceding 

19 


290  THE   TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

chapter,  and  here  we  shall  consider  specifically  the  nature  of 
the  work  in  this  line  which  may  be  profitably  undertaken  in 
a  high  school. 

The  chief  general  topics  in  economic  zoology  are  :  useful 
domesticated  animals  (such  as  mammals,  birds,  honey-bee,  and 
Important  silkworm,  considered  as  sources  of  food  and  cloth- 
Topics.  mg  and  as  pets  and  beasts  of  burden)  ;  useful 
animals  not  domesticated  (chiefly  for  food  and  clothing) ; 
injurious  animals  (such  as  insects,  parasites,  rodents,  poisonous 
and  carnivorous  species)  ;  animals  beneficial  because  destroying 
those  which  are  injurious  (for  examples,  insectivorous  animals, 
predaceous  insects  and  arachnids,  amphibians,  reptiles,  some 
mammals).  .Considerations  of  animals  along  any  of  these  lines 
are  full  of  interest  to  the  average  pupil,  and  I  am  inclined  to 
believe  that  emphasis  upon  these  relations  of  animals  to  the 
interests  of  man  is  bound  to  lead  to  deeper  interest  in  zoology 
in  general. 

With  regard  to  the  methods  of  conducting  studies  in  economic 
lines,  field  work  should  be  supplemented  with  reading  and 

lectures.  The  field  work  will  be  naturally  associ- 
Methodsof  ,  .  J  , 

conducting       ated  with  the  ecological  studies;  and  insects  and 

birds  are  the  most  important  groups  for  observa- 
tions in  this  line.  However,  within  the  limits  of  time  for 
zoology  in  the  secondary  school  it  is  not  possible  to  go  far  into 
the  practical  side  of  the  economic  work  ;  in  fact  much  of  this  is 
better  conducted  in  the  elementary  school  as  part  of  the  nature- 
study.  Probably  supplementary  reading  is  the  most  feasible 
way  of  giving  in  connection  with  the  high-school  zoology  a 
general  view  of  this  phase  of  the  science.  A  commendable 
plan  is  to  have  brief  reports  prepared  by  the  pupils  basing  these 
upon  books  and  especially  the  governmental  publications  which 
are  referred  to  under  "  Economic  Zoology  "  in  the  chapter  on 
"  Zoological  Books." 

For  other  suggestions  on  economic  zoology  see  the  follow- 
ing: Proceedings  Natonal  Educational  Association,  1901,  p. 
584 ;  Barrows  in  School  Science,  Vol.  III.,  May  and  June, 


SECONDARY  SCHOOL   STANDPOINT         291 

1903 ;  Gage  on  Study  of  Domestic  Animals,  in  Science,  Vol. 
X.,  p.  305  ;  and  references  under  "  Utilitarian  Value  of  Zool- 
ogy," in  the  preceding  chapter. 

History  of  Zoology,  and  Biography. 

Although  not  essentially  a  part  of  the  subject-matter  of  the 
pure  science  of  zoology,  pertinent  historical  and  biographical 
facts  should,  I  feel  sure,  have  a  place  in  an  ele-  History  of 
mentary  course.  The  history  of  the  development  Zoffl°8y' 
of  a  science  throws  a  flood  of  light  upon  the  present  state 
of  the  science,  but  probably  of  greater  significance  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  high-school  pupil  is  the  interest  derived  from 
historical  facts.  In  elementary  work  historical  references  would 
often  prove  confusing  if  carried  far  into  fields  where  the  devel- 
opment of  knowledge  has  passed  through  radical  changes  ;  and 
it  is  only  to  the  epoch-making  stages  in  the  history  of  the  science 
that  it  seems  profitable  to  call  the  attention  of  beginning  stu- 
dents. Such  noteworthy  achievements  as  the  discovery  of  the 
circulation  of  the  blood,  the  announcement  of  the  cell-theory, 
the  publication  of  the  Origin  of  Species,  the  development  of  the 
germ-theory  of  disease,  and  other  important  landmarks  of  zoo- 
logical history  deserve  mention  in  any  general  course  which 
pretends  to  give  a  survey  of  the  science  of  animal  life. 

Nor  should  the  important  contributions  to  zoological  knowl- 
edge be  divorced  from  the  great  names  associated  with  them. 
It  is  unfortunate  that  in  the  elementary  teaching  of 
zoology  so  little  attention  has  been  given  to  the 
personal  aspect.  The  student  of  elementary  physics  and  chem- 
istry becomes  acquainted  with  names  such  as  Newton,  Priestley, 
Lavoisier,  Helmholtz,  Galvani,  and  Tyndal.  These  are  com- 
monly associated  with  great  principles  treated  in  even  elemen- 
tary text-books.  As  a  decided  contrast,  few  indeed  are  the 
elementary  books  of  zoology  which  give  prominence  to  even 
such  names  as  Darwin,  Agassiz,  Pasteur,  and  Huxley.  This 
should  not  be  so.  "  A  body  of  correlated  scientific  truth  can 
hardly  be  studied  apart  from  the  personality  of  the  names  in- 


292  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

separably  linked  with  it." l  Zoology  will  take  a  deeper  hold  on 
the  student  if  it  is  presented  with  due  attention  to  the  biograph- 
ical aspect. 

With  regard  to  the  teaching  in  this  line,  the  historical  and 
biographical  points  will  naturally  be  supplemental  to  the  regular 
zoological  work.  Notes  by  the  teacher,  brief  biographical 
'sketches  prepared  by  pupils,  exhibition  of  books  and  photo- 
graphs, reading  of  selections  from  original  works,  lists  of  im- 
portant discoveries  and  books  with  dates  —  these  topics  suggest 
ways  of  supplementing  the  work  in  pure  zoology  with  intensely 
interesting  historical  and  biographical  material.  For  sources  of 
such  materials  the  great  encyclopedias  are  always  useful,  but 
better  are  the  special  books  and  papers  named  under  "  His- 
torical "  and  "  Biography "  in  the  chapter  on  u  Zoological 
Books." 

Summary. 

We  have  seen  that  in  each  sub-science  of  zoology  there  are 
facts  and  principles  contributing  to  the  general  view  of  animals 
Essential  which  seems  most  desirable  for  liberal  secondary 
Phase  of 6aCh  education-  From  tnis  we  conclude  that  the  ele- 
Zooiogy.  mentary  course,  which  for  the  vast  majority  of  high- 
school  pupils  will  be  the  only  instruction  they  will  ever  receive  in 
zoology,  should  be  planned  to  present  the  fundamental  facts  and 
principles  of  each  of  the  sub-divisions  of  the  science.  It 
may  be  objected  that  such  a  wide  survey  of  the  science  of  zool- 
ogy, however  desirable,  involves  an  amount  of  work  which  is 
impossible  'for  an  elementary  course  ;  but  it  must  be  understood 
that  this  has  reference  to  only  the  general  facts  and  ideas  of  the 
various  divisions ;  and  as  indicated  on  preceding  pages,  it  is  not 
intended  that  along  any  line  the  study  should  go  far  into  details. 
It  is  obviously  impossible  to  include  all  important  points  in 
one  course,  and  it  rests  with  the  teacher  to  teach  those  which 
seem  to  have  the  greatest  general  importance  from  the  point 
of  view  of  liberal  education. 


1  Carhart,  The  Humanistic  Element  in  Science.     Proceedings  N.E. 
A.,  1896,  p.  946. 


SECONDARY  SCHOOL   STANDPOINT          293 

A  second  conclusion   growing   out  of  our    examination  of 
the  subject-matter  of  zoology  is  that  as  far  as  practicable  the 
various  phases  of  zoology  should  be  studied  in  their   study  of 
natural  relations.      A  strictly  pedagogical  arrange-   natural"1 
ment  according  to  the  scientific    divisions  —  mor-  Rel*tions. 
phology,  physiology,  ecology,  etc.  —  is  at  once  impossible  and 
undesirable.     In  the  preceding  discussions  it  has  many  times 
been  noted  that  the  various  divisions  of  zoology  are  so  closely 
inter-related  that  one  depends  upon  another.     It  follows  that 
elementary  presentation  of  the  science  develops  most  naturally 
when  the  study  of  the  various  phases  go  hand  in  hand. 

The  outline  of  a  course  in  zoology  given  in  Chapter  VIII.  is 
based  upon  the  views  expressed  in  this  chapter,  and  it  will  con- 
cretely illustrate  many  points  which  have  necessarily  been  dis- 
cussed here  in  a  very  general  way. 


CHAPTER   III 

THE    LABORATORY    AND    THE     SCIENTIFIC    METHOD 

IN    THE   TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY   IN   THE 

SECONDARY    SCHOOL 

"  True  Science-teaching  consists  in  bringing  the  pupil's  mind  into  direct  contact  with 
facts,  in  getting  him  to  investigate,  discover,  and  invent  for  himself/'  —  JOSEPH  PAYNE 
(1872). 

"In  order  to  get  the  fullest  benefit  from  a  scientific  education,  the  teacher  should  en- 
deavour to  bring  his  pupil  face  to  face  with  the  great  problems  of  Nature  as  though  he 
were  the  first  discoverer.  He  should,  in  fact,  teach  his  pupil  to  face  the  great  pro  blems  o 
Nature  as  if  they  had  never  been  solved  before."  l  —  KEMSHEAO. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Most  of  the  references  in  Chapter  I.,  especially  the  writings  by 
Huxley,  Forbes,  Payne,  Pearson,  Sedgwick,  and  Mivart,  bear  more  or 
less  directly  upon  the  subject  of  this  chapter.  In  addition,  the  following 
are  of  interest: 

Armstrong,  H.  E.  The  Teaching  of  the  Scientific  Method  and  other 
Papers  on  Education.  London,  Macmillan.  1903.  Pp.  476.  (Received 
too  late  for  use  in  this  chapter,  but  mentioned  here  f<3r  sake  of  greater 
completeness  of  the  bibliography.) 

Cramer,  F.  The  Method  of  Darwin,  A  Study  of  Scientific  Methods. 
Chicago,  McClurg.  1896. 

Cramer,  F.  Logical  Method  in  Biology.  POPULAR  SCIENCE 
MONTHLY,  Vol.  XLIV.,  p.  372.  1894. 

Forbes,  S.  A.  The  Scientific  Method  in  High  School  and  College. 
SCHOOL  SCIENCE,  Vol.  III.,  pp.  53-67.  May,  1903. 

Harvey,  N.  A.  The  Pedagogical  Content  of  Zoology.  Proceedings 
of  National  Educational  Association,  1899,  pp.  1106-1112. 

Harvey,  N.  A.  Classification  as  an  Element  in  Education.  SCHOOL 
SCIENCE,  Vol.  L,  pp.  451-455.  February,  1902. 

Murbach,  L.  Method  in  Science  Teaching.  SCHOOL  SCIENCE, 
Vol.  II.,  pp.  12-18.  March,  1902. 

Saunders,  S.  J.  Value  of  Research  in  Education.  SCHOOL  SCIENCE, 
Vol.  II.  March,  1902. 


1  Quoted  by  Payne  in  essay  on  True  Foundations  of  Science  Teach- 
ing. 


THE  LABORATORY  METHOD  295 

Saunders,  S.  J.  Value  of  Research  in  the  Training  of  the  Science 
Teacher.  Read  before  New  York  State  Science  Teachers'  Association. 
In  High  School  Bulletin,  No.  17,  Univ.  of  State  of  New  York,  Regent's 
Reports,  1902. 

"Welch,  W.  H.  Evolution  of  Modern  Scientific  Laboratories. 
Smithsonian  Report,  1895. 

The  Annual  Discussions  of  the  American  Society  of  Naturalists  in 
1898  and  1899  contain  much  of  interest  in  this  connection.  The  subject 
in  the  year  first  named  was  "  Advances  in  Methods  of  Teaching  "  (ab- 
stracts in  SCIENCE,  Jan.  20,  1899).  The  papers  of  the  second  year  dis- 
cussed "  Universities  and  Investigation."  SCIENCE,  Vol.  XL,  pp.  51-66. 
January  12,  1900. 

i.   The  Place  of  Laboratory  Work  in  Zoological  Teaching. 

NECESSARILY  much  of  the  discussion  which  is  here  directed 
specifically  to  zoological  teaching  would  apply  to  the  teaching 
of  any  other  science  by  the  laboratory  method.  However,  for 
our  present  purpose  it  seems  best  to  keep  the  discussion 
closely  limited  to  zoology,  although  a  broader  application  will 
often  be  obvious. 

The  extensive  application  of  the  laboratory  method  to  the 
teaching  of  classes  in  zoology  was  first  made  by  Huxley  be- 
tween 1860  and  1870,  the  Practical  Biology  History  of 
(1875)  being  the  result  of  his  experience.  The 
influence  of  this  volume  was  widespread,  and  its 
careful  directions  for  a  course  of  practical  study  prepared  the 
way  for  general  adoption  of  the  laboratory  method  for  zoology 
in  colleges.  However,  it  should  be  added  that  the  way  had 
already  been  prepared  for  the  acceptance  of  Huxley's  method 
by  the  practice  of  Louis  Agassiz  in  this  country  and  other 
biologists  in  Europe ;  but  it  should  be  noted  that  these  men 
were  aiming  to  educate  specialists,  while  Huxley's  work 
related  to  the  general  student  seeking  liberal  education  rather 
than  special  training  for  the  naturalist's  career.  It  is  to 
Huxley,  then,  that  we  trace  directly  our  now  almost  universal 
practical  method  of  teaching  the  fundamental  principles  of 
biology  as  part  of  general  education.  But  the  foundation  of 
the  practical  method  of  science  teaching  was  laid  long  before 


296  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

Huxley's  time,  and  he  simply  worked  out  for  use  in  general 
educational  practice  certain  methods  which  had  been  de- 
veloping for  over  two  hundred  years.  In  fact,  as  long  ago 
as  1657  The  Great  Didactic  of  Comenius  urged  the  teaching  of 
science  by  "  actual  perception  of  things  themselves."  1  This, 
of  course,  was  but  the  logical  application  to  scientific  teaching 
of  the  method  of  scientific  research  which  Francis  Bacon  so 
successfully  presented  in  his  Novum  Organum,  in  1620.  It  is 
now  so  generally  accepted  that  the  laboratory  method  is  all 
Principles  of  essential  in  the  teaching  of  zoology  that  analysis 
M^ho^are  °^  *ts  educational  value  may  seem  unnecessary. 
important.  Nevertheless,  inquiry  into  the  underlying  princi- 
ples of  laboratory  study  is  of  great  importance  to  the  teacher 
who  seeks  guidance  in  the  management  of  laboratory  work, 
and  we  shall  therefore  consider  it  particularly  with  reference 
to  the  two  general  aims  of  zoological  teaching  which  have 
been  discussed  in  Chapter  I.,  namely,  the  study  of  zoology  as 
(i)  information,  (2)  as  discipline. 

With  regard  to  the  acquisition  of  zoological  information,  it 
has  often  been  urged  against  the  laboratory  method  that  it  is 

very  time  consuming.     This  will  be  admitted  by 
Laboratory         „      , 

Method  and  all  who  had  been  students  or  teachers  m  a  zoologi- 
Inf ormation.  1,1  .,  r  -^  i_*.  •  j 

cal  laboratory.     Many  more  facts  can  be  obtained 

from  an  hour  of  reading  than  from  many  hours  of  laboratory 
study ;  and  so  far  as  the  quantity  of  the  information  is  con- 
cerned the  study  of  books  about  animals  is  more  profitable 
than  laboratory  study  of  the  actual  animals.  But  what  of  the 
value  of  the  facts  gleaned  exclusively  from  books?  Harvey's 
dictum  as  quoted  by  Huxley 2  furnishes  an  answer  :  "  Those 
who  read  without  acquiring  distinct  images  of  the  things  about 
which  they  read,  by  the  help  of  their  senses,  gather  no  real 
knowledge,  but  conceive  mere  phantoms  and  idola."  Huxley 


1  See  Monroe's  Comenius,  p.  98  (New  York,  Scribners,  1900).      Also 
Keatinge's  translation  of   The  Great  Didactic  of  Comenius.      (London, 
Black.    1896.)    Chapter  on  "  The  Method  of  the  Sciences,  Specifically." 

2  The  Crayfish,  p.  5. 


THE  LABORATORY  METHOD  2Q/ 

himself  urged  the  value  of  information  acquired  by  practical 
study : 

"Nobody  will  ever  know  anything  about  Biology  except  in  a 
dilettante    '  paper-philosopher '    way,    who   contents   himself  with 
reading  books  on  botany,  zoology,  and  the  like  ;  and 
the  reason  of  this  is  simple  and  easy  to  understand. 
It  is  that  all  language  is  merely  symbolical  of  things  of  which  it 
treats;   the  more   complicated    the  thing,  the  more  bare   is   the 
symbol,  and  the  more  its  verbal  definition  requires  to  be  supple- 
mented by  the  information  derived  directly  from  the  handling  and 
the  seeing  and  the  touching  of  the  thing  symbolized  :  —  that  is 
really  what  is  at  the  bottom  of  the  whole  matter." 

"  You  may  read  any  quantity  ot  books,  and  you  may  be  almost 
as  ignorant  as  you  were  at  starting,  if  you  don't  have  at  the  back 
of  your  minds  the  change  for  words  in  definite  images  which  can 
only  be  acquired  through  the  operation  of  your  observing  faculties 
on  the  phenomena  of  nature."  1 

The  above  quotations  express  the  views  now  generally  held 
by  scientific  men  that  for  the  learner  "  the  true  foundation  of 
physical  science  lies  in  the  knowledge  of  physical  facts  gained 
at  first  hand  by  observation  and  experiment  to  be  made  by 
the  learner  himself."  2 

But  it  is  not  to  be  understood  that  the  student  must  get  all 
his  scientific  facts  from  his  own  studies  in  the  laboratory.  To 

advocate  this  would  be  absurd.     Such  a  limitation 

Information 
to  the  time-consuming  laboratory  work  would  make   not  Exclu- 

it  impossible  for  the   average  student  to   acquire   theLabora- 
anything  like  a  general  view  of  the  science.    Some 
fundamental  facts  having  been  acquired  by  personal  observa- 
tion, such  original  knowledge  may  be  the  basis  on  which  to 
build  facts  acquired  from   other  persons   through  the  media 
of  art  and  language.     With  this  supplementary  work  we  shall 
deal  in  the  following  section,  "  On  Relation    of   Laboratory 
Work  to  Book  Work."     In  the  present  connection  it  is  sufifi- 


1  Science  and  Education  Essays,  p.  282. 

2  Payne,  Essays  on  Education. 


298  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

cient  to  have  emphasized  that  scientific  knowledge  at  first 
hand  is  essential  as  a  basis  for  facts  received  from  others,  and 
that  while  scientific  facts  may  be  crammed  from  text-books 
and  dictations  by  teachers,  even  considering  science  study  as 
a  source  of  useful  information,  the  teaching  is  vastly  more 
efficient  when  based  upon  the  pupils'  personal  knowledge 
gained  by  direct  study  of  natural  phenomena. 

So   far  we   have    considered  the   laboratory  method   in  its 
relation  to  information  only,  but  a  more  important  aspect  of 

the  laboratory  method  is  in  its  relation  to  scien- 
Laboratory 
Method  and      tific  discipline.     Now  there  is  no  question  among 

scientific  men  of  to-day  that  the  laboratory  method 
of  science  study  is  the  one  sure  way  of  giving  training  in  those 
mental  observations  which  are  essential  to  the  scientific  method. 
"  There  is  very  little  profit,"  says  President  Eliot,  of  Harvard, 
"  in  studying  natural  science  in  a  book,  as  if  it  were  grammar  or 
history  ;  for  nothing  of  the  peculiar  discipline  which  the  proper 
study  of  science  supplies  can  be  obtained  in  that  way,  although 
some  information  on  scientific  subjects  may  be  so  acquired."  1 
We  may  safely  follow  the  now  universally  accepted  opinion 
expressed  in  this  quotation.  But  from  the  active  teacher's 
Analysis  standpoint  there  is  little  satisfaction  in  being  told 
MetnodntlfiC  dogmatically  by  the  great  authorities  in  science 
Needed.  teaching  that  laboratory  study  of  zoology,  or  of 

any  other  science,  gives  a  peculiar  discipline.  More  than 
this  the  teacher  should  understand  just  what  is  involved  in 
this  discipline  which  is  called  "  scientific "  and  how  it  may 
be  best  advanced  by  proper  management  of  the  laboratory 
study.  To  make  such  an  analysis  of  the  scientific  discipline 
as  involved  in  the  study  of  zoological  materials  is  the  purpose 
of  the  next  section.  It  is  well  worth  while  as  teachers  to 
stop  to  analyze  the  scientific  method  as  it  is  related  to  the 
materials  of  zoology,  for  as  Professor  Forbes  has  well  said  : 


1  From  essay  on  "  What  is  a  Liberal  Education,"  in  Educational  Re- 
form (Century  Company).     Also  in  Century  Magazine.     June,  1884. 


THE  LABORATORY  METHOD  299 

"  Our  science  teaching  may  be  materially  strengthened  and  be 
made  practically  more  valuable  if  we  will  give  much  more  attention 
and  thought  than  hitherto  to  the  rational  action  of  the  mind  in 
science  work,  especially  in  the  matter  of  inductive  inference;  if  we 
will  bestow  as  much  care,  ingenuity,  and  skill  upon  the  selection, 
adaptation,  and  arrangement  of  materials  for  the  training  of  the 
mind  in  the  processes  of  logical  reflection  on  the  products  of 
experience  as  we  have  heretofore  used  in  equipping  laboratories, 
and  in  teaching  our  students  how  to  see,  to  manipulate,  and  to 
describe."  * 

2.  The  Scientific  Method  as  Applied  in  Teaching  Zoology. 

What  do  we  understand  as  involved  in  the  general  scien- 
tific method?     In  answer  to  this  Huxley  has  said  that  "the 
great  peculiarity  of  scientific  training,  that  in  vir- 
tue of  which  it  cannot  be  replaced  by  any  other  Scientific 

j-     •    v  •       u-     u  •      •          r    u         •    A    Method? 

discipline  whatsoever,  is  this  bringing  of  the  mind 

directly  into  contact  with  fact,  and  practising  the  intellect  in 
the  completest  form  of  induction ;  that  is  to  say,  in  drawing 
conclusions  from  particular  facts  made  known  by  immediate 
observation  of  Nature."  2 

In  brief,  then,  the  fundamental  basis  of  the  general  method 
of  science  is  observation  of  particular  facts  and  drawing  con- 
clusions from  them.  This  is  induction  as  a  pro- 

r  .      .  ,   .  .  .  *         Inductions 

cess  of  logic ;  and  its  prominence  in  science  has    the  Scientific 

led  to  the  use  of  the  term  "  inductive  "  method  as 
synonymous  with  "  scientific  "  method.  But  in  this  liberal  use 
of  the  term  inductive  there  is,  unfortunately,  a  liability  to  mis- 
understanding, for  the  scientific  method  involves  in  addition  to 
the  logical  process  of  induction  those  of  deduction  and  veri- 
fication. In  fact,  in  the  development  of  our  greatest  generali- 
zations of  biology,  deduction  has  played  an  important  part, 
but  induction  directly  from  observed  facts  has  been  the 
foundation.  The  relation  of  these  processes  —  observation,  in- 
duction, deduction,  verification  —  has  been  illustrated  by 


1  From   School  Science,  Vol.  III.,  p.  66. 

2  From  Science  and  Education  Essays,  p.  1 26. 


300  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

Huxley,  in  his  essay  On  Educational  Value  of  Natural  His- 
tory, by  reference  to  the  circulation  of  the  blood.  Every 
teacher  of  science  should  be  familiar  with  this  essay,  but  for 
our  present  purposes  the  following  points  will  suffice :  Ob- 
servation and  experiment  give  the  facts  which  lead  to  the  con- 
clusion by  induction  that  the  blood  circulates  in  the  particular 
animals  studied.  If  it  is  wished  to  apply  this  to  a  new  animal, 
it  might  be  deductively  reasoned  from  general  similarity  that 
there  is  circulation  of  the  blood.  But  this  deduction  would 
not  be  secure  until  confirmed  by  verification,  which  would  con- 
sist in  making  on  the  new  animal  all  the  observations  and 
experiments  involved  in  the  original  induction.  Even  then  it 
would  not  be  scientifically  sure  to  conclude  deductively  that 
other  animals  which  are  structurally  similar  have  a  circulation, 
for  as  Huxley  has  pointed  out,  even  those  deductions  which  seem 
founded  on  the  widest  and  safest  inductions  need  verification. 
This  brief  analysis  of  the  scientific  method  as  applied  to  a 
case  in  zoology  gives  us,  for  the  purposes  of  the  teacher, 
Scientific  sufficient  insight  into  the  principles  involved.  It 
Great°Ge5-  would  be  interesting  to  trace  the  steps  in  the 
eraiizations.  development  of  some  great  generalizations  of  biol- 
ogy through  the  stages  of  accumulation  of  facts  by  observation 
and  experiment,  then  induction  to  hypothesis,  then  deductive 
application  of  the  hypothesis  to  other  particular  cases,  and 
finally  attempts  at  verification ; l  but  this  would  be  of  little 
value  so  far  as  it  might  throw  light  on  our  practice  in  teaching 
in  elementary  courses.  The  greatest  generalizations  of  science 
are  the  outcome  of  such  a  complicated  interplay  of  observa- 
tion, induction,  deduction,  and  verification,  that  it  is  clearly 
impracticable  that  they  should  be  presented  to  the  pupils  by 
the  strictly  scientific  method,  repeating  that  applied  in  the 
original  formulation  of  the  generalization. 


1  For  such  extended  analysis  of  the  scientific  method  see  the  refer- 
ences to  Cramer,  Forbes,  Huxley,  Pearson,  and  others,  at  the  beginning 
of  this  chapter.  Cramer's  Method  of  Darwin  is  especially  interesting  to 
the  biologist. 


THE   LABORATORY  METHOD  3<DI 

This  leads  us  to  recognize  the  distinction  between  two  orders 
of  reasoning  :  first,  that  followed  in  the  original  discovery  of  a 
truth  ;  and  second,  that  followed  by  way  of  proof  ^^  Orders 
or  argument  after  the  investigation  has  reached  an  of  Reasoning, 
established  conclusion.  It  is  really  this  second  order  which 
we  are  forced  to  adopt  in  most  biological  teaching  in  which  we 
attempt  to  lead  the  pupil  to  see  the  grouped  evidence  so  that 
he  will  be  convinced  by  the  proof.  This  is  essentially  the  or- 
der of  most  of  our  biological  text-books,  and  few  indeed  are 
those  which  give  the  student  even  a  glimpse  of  the  steps  which 
must  have  been  passed  over  in  the  original  investigation.  For 
example,  the  circulation  of  the  blood  is  usually  stated  as  if  it 
were  axiomatic,  and  in  the  absence  of  the  proofs  the  student 
may  well  wonder  where  there  was  anything  remarkable  in  the 
original  discovery. 

So  far  as  high-school  laboratory  work  in  zoology  is  con- 
cerned, only  the  simplest  problems  could  be  worked  out  by 
pupils  following  more  or  less  closely  the  order  of  Order  of  Dis- 
discovery;  but  no  opportunity  for  making  the  pupil  Teaching, 
the  discoverer  of  even  the  minutest  point  in  the  historical  or- 
der should  be  neglected.  "  The  teacher  should  endeavor  to 
bring  his  pupils  face  to  face  with  the  great  problems  of  nature, 
as  though  he  were  the  first  discoverer."  This  is  the  key-note 
to  the  most  efficient  science  teaching,  for  it  is  this  attitude  of 
the  teacher  which  tends  to  direct  pupils'  minds  in  the  order 
of  discovery,  involving  in  logical  series  observation,  induction, 
deduction,  and  verification. 

But  although  only  the  simplest    problems    are   feasible    for 
high-school  practice  in  applying  the  complete  scientific  method 
in  the  order  of  discovery,  students   may  get  prac-   order  of 
tice  in  some  of  the  fundamental  processes  of  the   Proof- 
scientific  method  even  from  the  order  of  proof.     To  illustrate  : 
The  individual  pupil  could  not  as  a  re-discoverer  repeat  all  the 
steps  in  the  development    of  a    great   principle    like  the  cell- 
theory  ;  but  it  is  perfectly  possible  for  him  to  follow  the  order 
of  discovery  in  many  steps.     First,  through  his  own  first  obser- 


302  THE   TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

vations  of  the  microscopic  structure  of  some  simple  tissue  he 
will  discover  cells.  Later  he  will  discover  cells  in  the  other 
tissues,  and  will  arrive  at  the  conclusion  that  in  the  body  of 
the  animal  studied  there  are  cells  in  all  tissues.  This  may  be 
deductively  applied  to  other  animals,  but  without  verification 
by  further  observation  the  deduction  would  not  be  scientifically 
secure.  A  limited  amount  of  such  verification  may  be  made  ; 
but  of  course  no  individual  could  repeat  the  vast  number  of 
verifications  which  have  been  made  by  investigators  since 
Schleiden  and  Schwann  announced  the  theory  in  1838-1839, 
and  in  our  teaching  there  comes  a  point  where  the  established 
generalization  must  be  given  to  the  pupils.  Thus,  in  a  very  con- 
densed way  the  teacher  might  lead  the  pupil  through  some  of 
the  foundation  steps  in  the  re-discovery  of  the  cell-theory.  It 
is  clear,  then,  that  even  in  the  cases  of  some  of  the  widest 
generalizations,  such  as  the  cell-theory  and  the  principle  of 
evolution,  the  pupil's  own  experience  with  the  underlying  facts 
may  be  the  foundation  for  the  statement  and  illustration  of 
these  generalizations ;  and  certainly  such  first-hand  acquaint- 
ance with  facts  leads  to  a  proper  appreciation  of  the  history  of 
the  original  discovery  and  to  confidence  in  the  truth  of  the 
principle. 

The  main  point  in  this  discussion  which  I  wish  to  empha- 
size particularly  is  that  in  order  to  make  the  study  of  zoology 

most  valuable  as  discipline  in  the  scientific  method, 
Summary. 

the  essential  processes  and  their  relations  must  be 

kept  constantly  in  mind  by  the  teacher  who  directs  the  practical 
studies ;  and  it  should  be  the  constant  aim  of  the  teacher  to 
lead  the  pupils  to  apply  as  far  as  possible  the  principles  of  the 
scientific  method  in  discovering  truth  for  themselves.  To  be 
sure  all  this  is  time  consuming,  and  there  is  the  ever-present 
vision  of  examinations  and  requirements  of  subject-matter ; 
but  the  emphasis  upon  scientific  discipline  is  well  worth  more 
than  one-half  the  time  of  a  course.  Perhaps  some  day  those 
responsible  for  the  requirements  in  knowledge  of  subject- 
matter,  particularly  those  who  set  college-admission  require- 


THE  LABORATORY  METHOD  303 

ments,  will  come  to  take  account,  not  simply  of  what  facts  a 
pupil  holds  in  memory,  but  also  of  what  scientific  training  has 
been  received  while  getting  the  facts. 

With  the  foregoing  understanding  of  the  general  principles 
of  the  scientific  method  as  applied  to  the  study  of  zoology,  it 
will  be  useful  to  examine  the  current  teaching  with 
regard  to  the  actual  application  of  the  principles, 
especially  in  the  relation  between  selected  subject-   Method, 
matter  and  the  use  of  the  scientific  method. 

The  morphological  aspect  as  it  must  be  presented  in  an  ele- 
mentary course  is  most  valuable  for  training  in  observation, 

and  this  is  the  training  to  be  derived   from    the 

/.    ,       ,  ,  i    •          -1  •     Morphology, 

great  mass  of  the  laboratory  work  in  zoology  as  it 

is  commonly  taught.1  Now  observation,  the  very  foundation 
of  the  scientific  method,  is  valuable ;  but  we  can  lead  to  this 
through  nature-study  in  the  elementary  school,  and  for  the 
high  school  we  need  more  of  the  scientific  method. 

It  is  to  the  physiological  and  ecological  phases  of  biology 
that  we  must  turn  for  material  most  suitable  for  training  in 
scientific  reasoning ;  and  the  recent  introduction  phySi0i0gy 
of  these  into  biological  courses  in  the  secondary  and  Ecology, 
school  must  be  regarded  as  not  only  valuable  for  the  wider 
view  of  the  facts  of  the  science,  but  also  for  the  more  com- 
plete training  in  the  scientific  method.  As  an  example  of  such 
training  afforded  by  simple  experimental  problems  in  physi- 
ology, we  may  mention  the  well-known  experiments  to  deter- 
mine some  conditions  of  growth  of  yeast  and  bacteria.  The 
following  experiment  with  yeast  is  a  fair  sample  of  the  possi- 
bilities in  this  line. 

Take  four  test-tubes  and  fill  one-half  full  of  the  following  :  No.  i, 
distilled  water ;  No.  2,  ip  per  cent  solution  of  sugar  in  water;  No. 
3,   Pasteur  solution  without  sugar;    No.   4,    Pasteur    AnExperi- 
solution  with  sugar.     Add   to  each   tube  a  drop  of  {J^J1  Prol>" 
water  containing  living  yeast,  keep  under  conditions    Physiology, 
favorable  for  growth.     Examine  twice  daily  for  several  days  and 


1  See  article  by  Forbes  in  School  Science,  III.,  p.  59. 


304  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

compare  as  to  turbidity  (indicating  growth),  effervescence  and 
odors  (indicating  fermentation).  Write  careful  notes  (i)  de- 
scribing the  experiments,  (2)  on  observation  of  changes  which 
occur,  (3)  conclusion  which  you  draw  concerning  the  materials 
necessary  (a)  for  growth  of  yeast  and  (£)  for  fermentation. 

From  this  simple  experiment,  which  should  be  repeated 
until  sure  of  constant  results,  pupils  may  be  expected  by  strict 
its  Scientific  application  of  the  scientific  method  involving  ob- 
Resuits.  servation,  experiment,  and  induction,  to  arrive  at 

the  following  facts  and  conclusions  : 

Facts:  —  Tube  i,  No  growth  or  fermentation  in  distilled  water. 
No.  2,  Some  growth  and  fermentation  in  sugar  solution.  No.  3, 
More  growth  in  Pasteur  solution  without  sugar  than  in  pure  sugar 
solution.  No  fermentation.  No.  4,  Mostgrowth  and  fermentation 
in  Pasteur  solution  with  sugar. 

Inductions  from  these  facts :  No.  i,  Distilled  water  lacks  some- 
thing necessary  for  growth  of  yeast.  No.  2,  Sugar  is  one  sub- 
stance which  supplies  the  necessary  materials  for  growth  and 
fermentation.  No.  3,  Pasteur's  without  sugar  contains  other  sub- 
stances which  are  sufficient  for  growth  ;  but  evidently  without 
the  sugar  this  solution  is  not  sufficient  for  fermentation.  No.  4, 
Pasteur  solution  with  sugar  contains  substances  for  growth,  but 
there  is  more  growth  than  in  tubes  2  and  3,  and  therefore  the 
combination  of  the  other  substances  and  sugar  is  most  favorable 
for  growth.  Also  comparing  3  and  4  it  is  evident  that  sugar,  not 
the  other  substances,  undergoes  fermentation. 

As  an  example  of  simple  deduction  we  might  reason  that 
since   certain  other   plants  —  the  moulds   and   bacteria  —  are 
in  many  ways  similar  to  yeast,  therefore  the  above 
conclusions  derived  from  yeast  are  applicable  to 
them.     To  make  this  sure   would  require    the   repeating  the 
above  experiments  (verification)  with  the  plants  to  which  the 
conclusions    are  deductively   applied.     Even  if  time   be   not 
taken  for  deduction  and  verification  the  steps  of  such  reason- 
ing are  worth  pointing  out  to  the  pupils. 
\  It  is  evident  that  such  an  experiment  as  that  above  offers 
opportunities  for  training  in  scientific  reasoning  which  few  of 
the  usual  morphological  problems  can  furnish.     It  is  true  that 


THE  LA  BORA  TORY  METHOD  305 

this  experiment  is  rather  exceptional  for  the  discipline  which 
its  careful  solution  may  give,  but  in  numerous  small  problems 
of  physiology  and  ecology  pupils  may  be  led  along  similar  lines 
of  the  scientific  method. 

Another  illustration  of  the  application  of  the  scientific 
method  is  in  the  use  of  chemical  tests  for  starch,  proteids, 
and  sugars.  The  common  practice  is  essentially 

as  follows  :  The  pupil  is  directed  to  apply  iodine  Illustration  of 
i          r  i-          j       j    c    •  i        Applicationof 

to  various  samples  of  starch,  and  a  definite  color   Scientific 

appears.  From  this  single  observation  the  scien- 
tific conclusion  is,  of  course,  that  starch  is  changed  in  color 
by  the  action  of  iodine.  But  this  is  not  the  point  where  the 
pupil's  reasoning  is  stopped,  for  he  is  directly  set  to  test  for 
starch  in  unknown  substances  —  a  process  involving  (for  the 
pupil)  the  unverified  deduction  that  iodine  produces  the  par- 
ticular reaction  in  starch  and  in  no  other  substance.  Now 
the  individual  pupil  could  not  verify  this  which  has  been 
established  by  the  experience  of  thousands  of  chemists  work- 
ing with  many  thousands  of  different  substances,  but  for  the 
sake  of  practice  in  the  first  steps  in  the  scientific  method  the 
pupil  should  follow  his  test  of  starch  by  tests  of  other  sub- 
stances—  such  as  sugar,  fats,  and  proteids  —  with  iodine. 
Then  make  clear  to  him  that  the  results  of  his  own  limited 
experiments  are  in  line  with  the  results  of  thousands  of  such 
experiments. 

The  same  tendency  of  science  teaching  to  take  the  short 
cut  from  facts  to  generalization  is  exhibited  in  numerous  cases 

in  which  negative  results  are  entirely  ignored.     As 

.  Negative 
an  example,  the  experiments  on  the  digestion  of  Results 

foods,  as  given  in  most  published  books,  are  nothing 
more  than  verifications  of  the  positive  statements  in  the  book. 
Experiments  are  made  to  show  that  pepsin  and  acid  together 
digest  proteid,  but  few  authors  suggest  that  it  be  tested  whether 
pepsin  alone  or  acid  alone  produces  the  same  effect,  or  whether 
pepsin  will  digest  foods  other  than  proteids.  From  the  stand- 
point of  the  scientific  method  these  negative  aspects  are  as 

20 


306  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

important  as  the  positive.  The  really  scientific  presentation  of 
gastric  digestion  in  the  laboratory  would  not  be  by  an  experi- 
ment "  to  show  that  gastric  juice  digests  proteid,"  but  rather 
by  a  series  of  experiments  to  determine  the  part  which  gastric 
juice  plays  in  digestion  of  the  various  kinds  of  foods.  In  this 
particular  case  I  know  by  experience  that  the  more  scientific 
method  takes  much  longer  for  the  experiments  on  digestion, 
but  the  time  cannot  be  spent  more  profitably. 

This  last  illustration  of  the  scientific  method  brings  to  our 
attention  two  distinct  methods  of  directing  laboratory  work  in 
Two  Methods  biology.  The  first  is  the  mere  verification  of  what 
LaboratSy2  tne  ^°°^  savs>  tne  second  involves  the  setting  of 
study.  problems  to  be  worked  out.  These  two  ways  of 

directing  the  laboratory  studies  of  students  of  biology  are  asso- 
ciated historically  with  the  teaching  of  two  famous  naturalists, 
Agassiz  and  Huxley.  The  method  of  Agassiz  consisted  essen- 
tially in  placing  the  materials  before  the  student  and  leaving 
him  with  the  minimum  of  direction  and  suggestion  which  will 
lead  him  to  discover  facts  for  himself.  This  we  may  call  the 
"  investigation  "  method,  or  since  the  suggestion  of  a  problem 
would  often  take  the  form  of  a  question,  it  has  been  called  the 
"  interrogation  "  method.  The  other  method  was  character- 
ized by  the  teaching  of  Huxley  and  is  well  illustrated  by 
Huxley  and  Martin's  Practical  Biology.  In  this  we  find  de- 
scriptions so  complete  that  there  is  nothing  for  the  student  to 
do  except  to  verify  the  printed  statements.  This  we  may  call 
the  "  verification  "  method.  Obviously,  it  has  an  advantage 
in  that  the  students  can  rapidly  gain  a  personal  acquaintance 
with  the  facts,  and  hence,  so  far  as  zoology  teaching  is  viewed 
from  the  side  of  information,  this  method  is  the  best.  But 
from  the  standpoint  of  scientific  discipline,  the  "  investigation" 
method  has  great  advantages. 

For  the  sake   of  a  close  comparison  of   the  two  methods 

of  laboratory  direction,   I  give  here  two  outlines 
of  fftwon      which  cover  the  same  points  regarding  the  external 

structure  of  the  earthworm. 


THE  LABORATORY  METHOD  307 

1.  (Directions  for  "  Verification"}     "  Notice  that  the  body  is 
cylindrical   along  the  greater   part  of  its  length,  flattened  in  its 
hinder  part.     It  is  pointed  in  front  and  blunt  behind,  and  is  thick- 
est about  one-third  of  its  length  from  the  anterior  end.     The  gen- 
eral color  of  the  animal  is  darker  on  dorsal  and  paler  on  ventral 
surface  of  the  body." 

2.  (Directions  for  "  Investigation")     "  Notice  living  worm  as 
it  moves  and  determine  anterior,  posterior,  dorsal,  ventral.     What 
is   the   general   form    of   the    body?     Describe,    illustrating   with 
sketches,  the  form  of   both  ends  of  the  body.     Compare  the  color 
on  the  dorsal  and  ventral  surfaces  of  the  body." 

Now,  comparing  these  two  forms  of  laboratory  directions, 
planned  to  lead  the  student  to  the  same  results  in  informa- 
tion, we  note  that  in  the  first  outline  the  pupil  is  given 
a  complete  description.  This  might  be  verified  on  a  preserved 
specimen,  and  so  far  as  the  pupil  is  concerned  there  would  be 
no  evidence  except  authority  that  it  is  true,  for  the  pupil  can- 
not really  know  that  the  pointed  end  is  anterior  and  that  the 
paler  surface  is  ventral  until  he  has  studied  the  movements 
of  the  living  worm.  On  the  other  hand,  the  second  method 
sets  a  problem  for  the  pupil  and  gives  the  minimum  of  direc- 
tions which  will  point  in  the  direction  of  the  correct  answer, 
thus  avoiding  the  wasting  of  time.  Determination  of  the  four 
points  of  orientation  (anterior,  etc.)  in  this  case  are  easy 
problems  for  a  pupil  who  has  learned  the  meaning  of  the 
terms  as  applied  to  a  crayfish,  an  insect,  or  a  frog.  Moreover, 
the  second  method  requires  the  pupil  to  use  his  own  language 
in  describing  the  form  of  the  earthworm,  whereas  the  first 
method  requires  only  reading  and  verification  which  may  be 
so  hasty  as  to  be  of  little  significance.  So  far  as  information 
gained  is  concerned  there  can  be  in  practice  little  essential 
difference  between  these  two  methods.  As  regards  time  re- 
quired, the  second  will  take  longer.  But  from  the  point  of 
view  of  scientific  training  there  can  be  no  question  about  the 
superiority  of  the  second  ("investigation")  method,  for  one 
of  the  simplest  possible  exercises  is  here  presented  in  a  form 


308  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

to  give  practice  in  true  scientific  investigation.  Suggestions 
and  questions  start  the  pupil  on  the  road,  and  he  is  left  to  pro- 
ceed independently  on  the  way  to  the  discovery  and  testing  of 
truth  concerning  the  points  in  question. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  application  of  the  "  investigation  " 
method  is  not  always  so  easy  as  in  the  above  example.     To 

illustrate  :  the  term  cylindrical  will  be  quickly  ap- 
Limitation  of       ...  ,      v-.ru  • 

"investiga-     plied  to  the  body  of  the  earthworm  in  answer  to 

etil0d*  the  question  about  its  shape,  but  trials  with  several 
classes  showed  that  few  pupils  would  spontaneously  apply  the 
term  "  triangular,"  which  is  used  in  several  books  in  describing 
the  shape  of  the  head  of  the  frog.  This  is  a  case  where  the 
descriptive  term  should  be  given  for  verification ;  and  such 
cases  are  very  common  in  zoology.  Again,  many  questions 
and  directions  apparently  attempt  to  avoid  the  verification  of 
descriptions,  and  yet  without  explanation  for  guidance  they 
are  generally  meaningless  to  the  pupils.  "  Identify  the  liver," 
"  Observe  the  arrangement  of  the  blood  vessels,"  "  Do  you 
find  the  kidneys?"  "Locate  the  green  gland,"  —  these  are 
common  examples.  Such  directions  apparently  set  problems 
for  solution,  but  they  do  not  help  in  the  cultivation  of  scien- 
tific habits  of  study.  Most  of  the  problems  as  briefly  stated 
are  impossible  of  solution  by  a  beginner,  and  are  likely  to  lead 
to  indefinite  and  uncertain  results,  and  hence  such  directions 
are  not  to  be  commended  for  scientific  study.  Many  such 
directions  not  uncommon  in  books  lead  to  guessing  and 
nothing  more.  It  is  clear  that  these  are  cases  where  the 
"  verification "  method  has  advantages ;  it  will  at  least  give 
good  results  in  the  line  of  information,  whereas  the  "  investi- 
gation "  method  will  fail  both  in  discipline  and  in  information. 
Summarizing,  we  must  conclude  that  there  are  advantages 
in  both  the  "verification"  and  the  "investigation"  methods 
of  laboratory  study  in  zoology.  The  first  is  best 
from  the  standpoint  of  acquiring  information  about 
the  science ;  the  second  unquestionably  affords  the  best  train- 
ing in  the  method  of  scientific  study.  Since  the  aims  of 


THE  LABORATORY  METHOD  309 

zoological  teaching  are  in  this  volume  taken  as  both  discipli- 
nary and  for  information,  it  follows  that  neither  method  should 
be  adhered  to  exclusively.  Whenever  possible  the  laboratory 
outlines  should  take  the  form  of  definite  statements  of  simple 
problems  which  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  can  be  solved 
under  the  existing  conditions  of  time,  material,  and  advance- 
ment of  the  pupils.  Note  the  conditions.  They  have  been 
too  often  overlooked  by  authors  who  have  attempted  strict 
adherence  to  the  "  investigation "  method.  If  these  condi- 
tions are  unfavorable  to  the  "  investigation "  method  in  the 
study  of  any  topic,  which  in  the  majority  of  cases  is  true,  let 
the  "  verification  "  plan  be  adopted.  Acceptance  of  this  sug- 
gestion will  lead  to  a  combination  of  the  two  methods ;  for 
much  of  the  usual  laboratory  study  for  beginners  is  best  ac- 
complished by  the  "  verification "  method,  but  there  are 
hundreds  of  little  problems  which  may  be  set  for  investigation 
by  the  pupils.  But  whether  the  special  method  of  teaching 
the  details  takes  the  form  of  "  verification  "or  "  investigation," 
the  general  attitude  of  the  teacher  at  all  times  should  tend  to 
inspire  the  pupils  to  independent  and  original  work  —  to  lead 
them  as  far  as  possible  "  to  face  the  great  problems  of  Nature 
as  though  they  had  never  been  solved  before." 

It  will  be  of  interest  to  append  to  the  above  discussion  of 
method  of  laboratory  study  a  list  of  the  manuals  which  illus- 
trate  each.     Among    manuals    for   college    work, 
Huxley  and  Martin's    Practical  Biology,  Marshall   ing  the  Two 
and  Hurst's  Practical  Zoology,  Parker's  Zootomy, 
Parker  and  Parker's  Practical  Zoology,  Brooks's  Handbook  of 
Invertebrate  Zoology,  — all  adhere  closely  to  the  "  verification  " 
method,  that  is,  these  books  are  simply  descriptions  arranged 
in  a  form  for  convenient  verification  in  the  laboratory.     The 
"  investigation "    method    has    received    extreme    application 
in  Dodge's  Biology  and  Walter,  Whitney,  and   Lucas's  Studies 
of  Animal  Life.     Good  examples  of  reasonable   combination 
of  the  two  methods  of  study  are  Kingsley's  Elements  of  Com- 
parative Zoology  and  Needham's  Lessons  in  Zoology. 


310  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

3.   The  Relation  of  Laboratory  Work  and  Book  Work. 

When  the  great  advantages  of  the  laboratory  method  both 
as  a  basis  for  scientific   information  and  in   mental    training 

began  to  be  generally  recognized  some  years  ago 
Historical.  ,  1,1  •>  »  .  , 

there  was  developed  a  tendency  to  limit  the  teach- 
ing of  zoology  in  secondary  schools  almost  exclusively  to  prac- 
tical work.  This  was  partly  the  result  of  enthusiasm  over  the 
results  obtained  from  the  method  then  new  to  secondary  edu- 
cation and  partly  due  to  the  fact  that  laboratory  guides  long 
preceded  suitable  modern  text-books  of  zoology  for  secondary 
schools.  But  in  recent  years  there  has  been  a  gradual  read- 
justment, and  now  both  laboratory  work  and  book  work  are 
generally  recognized  as  having  important  places  in  zoological 
instruction. 

From  the  conclusion  in  the  preceding  section  of  this  chapter 
that  knowledge  obtained  through  personal  investigation  is  the 

proper  foundation  for  zoological  study,  it  follows 
study  the  that  definitely  planned  laboratory  exercises  should 


be  the  basis  of  a  course  in  elementary  zoology. 
If  we  reverse  this  order  and  make  the  text-book  the  basis, 
then  the  laboratory  work  becomes  largely  verification  of  the 
text-book.  From  the  combined  standpoints  of  discipline  and 
information  laboratory  work  should  be  the  basis  and  book 
work  should  be  closely  correlated  so  as  to  supplement,  explain, 
and  verify  the  very  limited  information  which  the  pupil  gets 
from  his  own  studies  of  the  actual  objects.  At  present  such 
correlation  between  laboratory  work  and  book  work  rests  en- 
tirely with  the  teacher,  for  a  book  which  satisfactorily  combines 
laboratory  directions  and  supplemental  reading  for  an  entire 
course  is  not  in  existence.  In  fact,  it  may  be  doubted  whether 
such  a  book  is  a  desideratum,  for  several  recent  books  furnish 
excellent  material  for  collateral  reading  and  it  is  simply  neces- 
sary for  teachers  to  select  the  appropriate  topics.  A  difficulty 
which  arises  here  is  the  impossibility,  owing  to  cost,  of  pupils 
purchasing  more  than  one  book.  Clearly  this  one  book  should 


THE  LABORA  TORY  METHOD  3  1 1 

be  a  good  reference  book  which  pupils  will  care  to  keep  after 
the  course  is  finished  ;  and  if  laboratory  manuals  are  to  be 
used  for  directing  the  practical  work  they  should  be  owned  by 
the  school.  A  set  of  twenty  would  be  sufficient  for  one  lab- 
oratory and  with  protective  covers  would  last  for  years. 

The  recent  revival  of  book  work  in  teaching  zoology  in  high 
schools  is  not  without  its  dangers.  The  temptation  to  neglect 
the  laboratory  in  order  to  give  time  to  the  recita-  Dangers  of 
tion  is  strong  in  those  teachers  who  feel  the  im-  BookWork. 
portance  of  amount  of  information,  overlooking  the  at  least 
equally  important  disciplinary  aspect  of  zoological  teaching. 
Especially  are  such  teachers  likely  to  err  in  the  use  of  books 
such  as  the  excellent  volumes,  Animal  Life  and  Animal  Forms, 
by  Jordan,  Kellogg,  and  Heath ;  for  in  the  text  of  these  there 
are  no  definite  suggestions  for  close  correlation  with  laboratory 
work.  In  fact,  it  is  not  at  all  clear  to  the  present  writer  how 
these  particular  books,  like  all  other  books  which  deal  with 
zoology  in  the  form  of  a  systematic  treatise  on  the  science, 
could  be  read  continuously  in  close  correlation  with  a  series  of 
elementary  laboratory  exercises.  To  attempt  the  use  of  such 
books  as  a  basis  of  the  course  of  study  is  sure  to  lead  towards 
too  exclusive  dependence  upon  the  text-book.  Already  there 
has  been  manifested  in  the  use  of  Animal  Life  in  some  high 
schools  a  tendency  to  drift  back  to  the  old-time  recitation 
method.  Against  such  extreme  use  of  this  or  any  other  text- 
book protest  must  be  made. 

Again  I  wish  to  emphasize  the  statement  that  if  the  most 
valuable  results,  both  in  discipline  and  information,  are  to  be 
obtained  from  the  study  of  zoology,  the  laboratory 

exercise  must  be  the  basis  and  the  book  work  must  Relation  of 
,  ,        *  ,  .    .  Laboratory 

be  correlated  as  supplementary,  not  as  anticipatory,   and  Book 

material.     A  properly  organized  course  in  zoology 
must  be  primarily  and  fundamentally    a  series  of  laboratory 
exercises  around   which    centre  lectures,   recitations,  reading, 
and  other  supplementary  work  as  sources  of  information. 


312  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 


4.  Minor  Problems  of  Laboratory  Work  in  Zoology. 
Space  here  will  not  permit  more  than  a  general  discussion  of 
principles  underlying  the  practical  working  of  the  laboratory ; 
Sources  of  but  many  valuable  details  will  be  found  in  the  fol- 
Suggestions.  iowing .  Various  school  text-books  (see  list  in 
Chapter  X.)  ;  the  laboratory  manuals  in  morphology  and  physi- 
ology (see  chapter  on  " Zoological  Books")  ;  Suggestions  to 
Teachers  accompanying  Jordan  and  Kellogg's  Animal  Life 
(Appleton)  ;  Teachers'1  Book  of  Suggestions  accompanying 
Walter,  Whitney,  and  Lucas's  Studies  of  Animal  Life  (Heath)  ; 
and  Report  of  Committee  on  Zoology  to  New  York  State  Sci- 
ence Teachers'  Association,  High  School  Bulletin,  No.  7 
(1900),  pp.  528,  743—777,  obtainable  from  Secretary  of 
University  of  State  of  New  York,  Albany ;  price,  35  cents. 

a.    Form  of  Directions  to  Pupils. 

Chief  among  the  minor  problems  of  the  laboratory  confront- 
ing the  zoology  teacher  are  those  relating  to  giving  directions 

to  the  pupils.     These,  of  course,  may  be  oral  or 
Oral  and  .  .  ,  ' 

Written  written,  each  with  certain  advantages.  The  ad- 
Directions.  r  ,  -  .  .  .... 

vantages  of  the  first  are  that  the  personality  ot  the 

teacher  comes  into  full  play ;  and  also,  it  is  possible  to  push 
the  class  rapidly  over  a  given  piece  of  work.  Its  disadvan- 
tages are  that  all  pupils  do  not  work  with  the  same  rapidity, 
and  the  rapid  ones  set  the  pace  with  the  result  that  a  large  per- 
centage of  the  pupils  are  continually  leaving  tasks  incomplete. 
This  is  such  a  serious  objection,  tending  as  it  does  to  interfere 
with  the  individual  work  which  is  fundamental,  that  the  method 
is  of  little  value  except  for  isolated  demonstrations.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  value  of  written  directions  is  just  on  this  point, 
namely,  that  they  encourage  independent  and  individual  work. 
If  properly  prepared,  written  directions  economize  time  and 
keep  the  pupils  continuously  at  work  on  definite  problems. 
The  teacher  is  left  free  to  use  his  time  for  helping  individuals 
over  difficulties.  It  should  be  recommended,  then,  that 


THE  LABORATORY  METHOD  313 

written  directions  be  used  for  all  continuous  work,  reserving 
the  general  oral  directions  to  classes  for  special  points,  which 
may  come  up  unexpectedly,  and  for  occasional  isolated 
exercises. 

With  regard  to  the  form  of  written  directions,  mimeo- 
graphed l  sheets  are  undoubtedly  best  because  they  can  be 
adapted  by  the  teacher  to  local  conditions  of  outline  of 
course,  time,  and  available  materials.  In  this  respect  most 
printed  directions  in  books  are  inferior,  for  some  flexibility  is 
absolutely  essential.  In  the  absence  of  printed  books  and 
sheets,  directions  on  the  blackboard  must  be  used.  With 
large  classes  it  is  often  difficult  to  arrange  this  so  that  all  pupils 
can  see ;  and  necessarily  the  directions  are  very  abbreviated, 
which  is  often  undesirable. 

b.    Distribution  of  Apparatus  and  Materials  for  Study. 

The  aim  should  be  to  distribute  material  so  as  to  save  time 
for  pupils  and  not  unnecessarily  burden  the  teacher.  This  is 
a  problem  not  unworthy  of  serious  planning  by  the  say^g 
teacher.  The  writer  has  seen  some  laboratories  Pupils' Time, 
where  less  than  five  minutes  in  an  hour  sufficed  for  the 
orderly  distribution  and  collection  of  materials  and  appa- 
ratus, while  in  other  schools  much  time  was  wasted  because 
of  obvious  lack  of  system.  The  detail  of  this  must  be  worked 
out  to  fit  local  conditions.  Only  some  general  suggestions 
may  be  useful  here. 

First,  the  same  apparatus  —  microscopes,  dissecting  tools, 
etc.  —  must    in    most    schools   be   used  by   pupils   of  several 
classes,  and   in   order   to   place   responsibility   for   systemHeces- 
care   some    system    is    necessary.     The   following  sary- 
scheme   has  been  found  satisfactory  in   several   schools.     All 


1  In  the  absence  of  a  mimeograph  or  similar  copying  apparatus  re- 
quiring a  stencil,  the  simple  method  of  printing  from  a  pad  of  gelatine  is 
not  expensive  and  requires  no  special  skill  in  manipulation.  One  of  the 
best  of  these  duplicators  is  the  Hektograph  made  at  42  Murray  St.,  New 
York,  by  the  Hektograph  Co.  It  will  make  forty  or  fifty  good  dupli- 
cates from  a  single  copy  made  with  pen  or  typewriter,  using  special  inks. 


314  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

large  instruments,  such  as  microscopes,  are  numbered  and 
assigned  certain  places  in  lockers  and  on  tables  and  to  cer- 
tain pupils.  Smaller  instruments  in  regular  use  which  belong 
to  the  laboratory  are  kept  in  boxes  or  drawers,  also  numbered 
to  correspond  with  the  microscopes.  Each  pupil  upon  enter- 
ing and  leaving  the  laboratory  must  examine  apparatus  assigned 
to  him  and  report  any  damage  or  loss.  Thus  pupils  are  easily 
held  responsible  for  the  proper  use  of  the  property  of  the 
laboratory,  and  aside  from  protecting  the  property  of  the 
school,  the  system  is  worth  more  than  it  costs  in  trouble  to 
the  teacher  in  giving  pupils  training  in  methodical  habits. 

With  regard  to  distribution  and  collection  of  apparatus,  it 
should    be  so   systematically   placed    in    lockers,   drawers,  or 
closets  that  pupils,  moving  in  definite  order,  can 
obtain  and  return  their  own  apparatus.     The  ap- 
pointment of  one  or  two  pupils  for  the  distribution  of  apparatus 
to  each  table  will  often  save  confusion  in  large  classes.     Some- 
times when    the   same  apparatus  is    to    be  used    by  a  class 
immediately  following,  time  may  be   saved  by  leaving  it  in 
place  on  the  tables. 

Materials  to  be  studied  should  be  distributed  systematically, 
as  in  the  case  of  apparatus.  In  large,  roomy  laboratories  it  is 
Materials  for  ^est  to  nave  supply-tables  convenient  to  the  work- 
Study,  tables  on  which  materials,  properly  labelled,  may 
be  placed  by  the  teacher.  As  an  almost  ideal  plan,  I  know 
of  one  laboratory  with  eight  tables,  each  for  six  students,  in 
which  there  are  four  supply-tables,  with  sinks  and  running 
water  and  closets  for  dissecting  pans  and  other  dishes,  so 
arranged  that  no  student  is  over  fifteen  feet  from  a  supply- 
table.  Some  such  arrangement  saves  time  and  energy  for 
both  teacher  and  pupil.  However,  in  the  absence  of  such 
conveniences,  it  is  no  great  task  to  make  systematic  arrange- 
ments, so  that  pupils  can  do  a  large  part  of  the  work  involved 
in  distributing  and  collecting  their  own  materials  for  study. 


THE  LABORATORY  METHOD  315 


c.   Amount  of  Time  for  Laboratory  Work. 

Five  periods  (from  forty  to  fifty-five  minutes)  per  week  are 
usually  assigned  to  zoology,  as  is  the  rule  in  other  sciences. 
The  division  of  this  time  between  recitation  and   ximefor 
laboratory  work  varies  with  different  teachers,  but   j£j°ReciJ2 
three  periods  for  laboratory  work  and  two  periods   tion- 
for  recitation  or  lecture  seems  to  be  the  most  common  arrange- 
ment.    Personally  I  have  found  the  most  satisfactory  division 
of  time  to  be  four  periods  for  laboratory  work  and  one  period 
for  recitation  or  lecture,  using  in  addition  the  closing  minutes 
of  many  of  the  laboratory  periods  for  recitation  or  lecture  in 
order  to  clinch  the  essential  points  in  the  practical  lesson. 

With  regard  to  the  credit  for  laboratory  work,  most  colleges 
regard  two  periods  of  laboratory  work  as  equal  to  one  period 

of  recitation,  the  laboratory  work  not  requiring  the 

c  .-  u-   u    •     A  A    4    r        u      Credltfor 

time  for  preparation  which  is  demanded  for  the   Laboratory 

recitation  period.  This  is  impractical  in  most 
high  schools,  for  the  reason  that  the  hours  of  attendance  at 
school  are  usually  so  limited  that  all  recitation  hours  must  be 
credited.  In  a  few  academies  and  private  secondary  schools 
four  periods  of  laboratory  work  and  two  periods  of  recitation 
work  are  credited  as  four  periods,  and  four  periods  of  labora- 
tory work  and  one  period  of  recitation  as  three  periods.  How- 
ever, the  most  practicable  plan  for  most  secondary  schools  is 
five  periods  credit  for  an  equal  number  of  periods  in  recitation 
or  laboratory  work,  and  the  assignment  of  supplementary  read- 
ing and  outside  work  so  as  to  make  the  laboratory  work  require 
the  same  amount  of  preparation  as  does  the  recitation  period. 
In  this  way  a  five-period  course  in  biology  may  be  made 
equivalent  to  one  of  equal  time  in  other  subjects,  such  as  the 
languages  or  mathematics. 

Double  periods  (ninety  to  one  hundred  and  ten  minutes) 
are  preferable  for  laboratory  work  for  the  reason  that  the 
ordinary  forty-five  minutes'  session  is  too  short  for  performing 
many  experiments,  making  of  drawings,  etc.  Two  double 


316  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

periods  and  one  single  period  is  an  excellent  arrangement  for 
a  five-period  course.  Unfortunately  the  double  period  is  diffi- 
cult to  articulate  with  the  regular  school  program,  so  that  daily 
single  periods  are  usually  necessary  in  public  high  schools. 

d.   Drawings  and  Notes. 

The  ideal  record  of  laboratory  work  in  zoology  should  con- 
sist of  both  drawings  and  notes.     Excessive  attention  to  the 

morphological   aspect    of  zoology    has  tended    in 
The  Ideal  J 

Record  of  both  schools  and  colleges  to  over-emphasis  upon 
Work.  _,.,.,  -it. 

drawings,  which   as  a  rule  are  certainly  best  for 

recording  results  derived  from  study  of  structure.  I  have 
already  (p.  303)  pointed  out  that  morphology  alone  gives  little 
opportunity  for  scientific  training  in  induction,  for  the  study 
is  primarily  observational ;  and  that  for  materials  for  training 
in  induction  we  must  draw  upon  other  phases  of  zoology,  par- 
ticularly experimental  physiology.  Now,  drawings  like  the 
structures  which  they  represent  lend  themselves  chiefly  to  the 
training  in  observation.  For  sound  training  in  induction  we 
must  have  notes  —  not  simply  the  usual  notes  describing 
drawings  and  with  the  same  disciplinary  value,  but  clearly 
written,  logical  accounts  of  observations,  experiments,  and 
conclusions.  The  experiments  already  referred  to  on  yeast 
(p.  303)  as  an  example  of  a  laboratory  exercise  affording 
more  than  training  in  observation  are  also  good  examples  of 
work  whose  results  cannot  be  expressed  adequately  by  draw- 
ings alone.  In  such  cases  involving  experiments  the  notes 
should  clearly  state  :  (i)  The  problem  or  what  the  experi- 
ment is  designated  to  test.  (2)  Description  of  apparatus 
(with  sketches)  and  of  the  experiment.  (3)  Results  of  the 
experiment.  (4)  Conclusion  drawn. 

Aside   from    notes  for  the    sake   of  biological  training    in 

logical  reasoning,  descriptions  of  things  observed  and  even  of 

structures  represented  also  by  drawings  give  valu- 

Vaiue  of  able  training,  not  only  in  a  literary  way,  but  es- 
Notes.  •  it  •  •  c  i 

pecially  in  accuracy  in  use  of  language  —  an  in- 
valuable part  of  the  training  which  science  study  may  give. 


THE  LABORATORY  METHOD 

It  is  generally  agreed  that  simple  outline  drawings  only 
should  be  encouraged  in  regular  laboratory  work  in  zoology. 
Most  pupils  are  not  able  to  make  more  elaborate  Kindof 
drawings,  and  the  majority  of  those  who  have  Drawings, 
artistic  talent  tend  strongly  to  an  impressionistic  style  which 
is  not  at  all  adapted  to  scientific  work.  In  order  to  show 
beginners  in  the  laboratory  just  what  is  meant  by  outline 
drawings,  I  know  of  no  better  way  than  to  exhibit  the  illus- 
trations in  Morse's  First  Book  in  Zoology,  which  are  ideal 
outline  drawings  of  great  simplicity  and  will  give  pupils 
valuable  suggestions  about  representation  of  animal  structure. 
In  fact,  I  think  that  there  is  truth  in  Professor  Morse's  ad- 
vice that  beginning  pupils  should  practise  copying  the 
drawings  from  the  book.  But  this  copying  should  supple- 
ment, and  not  supplant,  drawings  from  nature.  Copied 
drawings  from  any  source  should  be  placed -beside  original 
ones  in  the  note-book,  and  the  source  labelled  upon  them  in 
order  to  distinguish  them  from  the  pupil's  original  work.  In 
laboratory  note-books  there  is  always  a  chance  for  some  pupils 
to  trespass  upon  their  intellectual  honesty,  and  the  teacher 
must  attempt  to  impress  upon  them  the  difference  between 
original  work  and  that  which  is  derived  from  other  sources ; 
and  the  note-book  should  be  so  labelled  that  any  one  who 
may  examine  it  can  tell  at  a  glance  just  what  is  original. 

Against  this  recommendation  that  some  drawings  may  be 
copied,  some  writers  have  advised  that  all  books  with  drawings 
be  kept  out  of  pupils'  hands,  at  least  until  after  Copied 
animals  are  studied  and  drawings  made.  I  cannot  Drawings. 
agree  to  this  because  experience  teaches  that  pupils  do  not 
give  critical  attention  to  figures  in  books  after  they  have  com- 
pleted their  own  sketches.  It  is  much  better  to  allow  them 
to  examine  drawings  freely  while  studying  materials  and  thus 
get  the  benefit  of  suggestions  for  their  own  sketches.  In 
order  to  avoid  direct  copying  while  drawing  from  the  actual 
object  studied,  reference  books  may  be  kept  on  special  tables 
where  they  may  be  consulted  from  time  to  time. 


318  THE   TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 


Note-books. 

There  are  in  common  use  several  good  methods  of  keeping 
drawings  and  notes  on  biological  work:  (i)  A  note-book  of 

m  f  g°°d  firm  paper  (ordinary  paper  for  ink  is  not 
Note-books,  satisfactory  for  drawings)  in  which  alternate  sheets 
(or  pages)  are  left  unruled  for  drawings.  The  disadvantages 
are  that  often  more  paper  for  notes  is  needed,  substitutions 
or  rearrangement  cannot  be  made,  and  the  inconvenience  of 
drawing  in  a  book  is  great.  (2)  An  ordinary  note-book  is 
used  for  notes ;  sheets  of  firm  paper  (linen-ledger  or  Bristol 
board)  for  drawings  which  are  kept,  dated  and  numbered  in 
order  of  making,  in  manila  envelopes.  The  advantages  are 
economy  in  drawing  paper  and  greater  convenience  in  drawing 
on  a  loose  sheet,  but  the  objection  arising  from  keeping  notes 
and  drawings  separated  is  a  very  serious  one.  (3)  Loose- 
leaf  note-books  with  both  ordinary  paper  for  notes  and  special 
paper  for  drawings.  These  can  be  arranged  as  the  relative 
proportion  of  drawings  and  notes  demand.  Obviously  this 
has  the  advantages  of  the  other  methods  combined.  The 
chief  objection  to  loose  leaves  for  both  notes  and  drawings  is 
that  pupils  may  substitute  copied  drawings  or  notes  for  those 
made  in  the  laboratory.  This  is  easily  prevented  by  the 
teacher  requiring  that  all  drawings  and  notes  made  during  a 
session  be  dated,  numbered,  and  left  on  the  teacher's  desk. 
Before  the  next  session  they  should  be  stamped  or  marked  so 
that  a  substitution  is  rendered  impossible,  and  it  may  then  be 
allowable  for  pupils  to  make  additions  or  corrections  as  the 
teacher  may  suggest. 

A  good  book,  with  firm  paper  ruled  on  one  side,  bound  in  cloth, 
100  and  150  pages,  is  sold  by  the  Cambridge  Botanical  Supply  Co., 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  at  about  45  and  55  cents. 

A  similar  note-book,  100  pages,  alternate  blank  pages,  9^  x  5^ 
inches,  strong  binding,  is  sold  by  Chicago  Laboratory  Supply  Co., 
price  40  cents. 

'Among  note-books  with  loose  leaves,  the  most  popular  in  college 
circles  is  the  "  University  Cover,"  made  by  the  National  Blank  Book 


THE  LABORATORY  METHOD  319 

Co.,  Holyoke,  Mass.  The  No.  2  cover  (size  6}4  x8j^  inches)  with 
perforations  at  side  of  sheet  are  the  most  convenient  for  laboratory 
notes.  The  ordinary  paper  (ruled  or  unruled)  accompanying  the 
cover  should  be  used  for  notes  and  the  same  sized  sheets  of  good 
quality,  firm  linen-bond  paper,  or  two-ply  Bristol  board,  should  be 
used  for  drawings.  The  cost  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  the 
bound  books  mentioned  above.  Lemcke  and  Buchner,  Broadway 
and  n8th  St.,  New  York,  sell  the  No.  2  cover  (cloth)  with  100 
sheets  of  note-paper  and  40  sheets  drawing-paper  at  50  cents. 

Another  good  cover  for  laboratory  notes  is  the  "  Perfection," 
No.  5,  flat  opening,  sold  by  E  Pennock,  3609  Woodlawn  Ave., 
Philadelphia. 

The  Chicago  Laboratory  Supply  Co.  makes  a  "  Biology  Tablet," 
containing  40  sheets  (7x11  inches)  of  ink  paper  and  24  sheets 
drawing  paper,  in  blocks,  accompanied  by  an  adjustable  cover; 
price,  50  cents. 


CHAPTER  IV 

ANIMAL    NATURE-STUDY   AND    HUMAN    PHYSIOLOGY   IN 

THE    ELEMENTARY    SCHOOL   AS    RELATED   TO 

ZOOLOGY  IN  THE  SECONDARY  SCHOOL 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

The  following  books  and  articles  have  proved  most  helpful  to  teach- 
ers of  nature-study  in  elementary  schools,  and  may  therefore  be  referred 
to  as  representing  the  kind  and  scope  of  studies  of  animals  which  are 
practicable  below  the  high  school. 

Bailey,  L.  H.  The  Nature-Study  Idea.  New  York,  Doubleday. 
1903.  Pp.  159.  $i  co.  (A  collection  of  essays  dealing  with  nature-study 
as  a  phase  of  education.  Full  of  practical  suggestions  for  teachers. 
Indispensable.) 

Hodge,  C.  F.  Nature  Study  and  Life.  Boston,  Ginn.  1902.  Pp.  514, 
figs.  196.  $1.50.  (Deals  chiefly  with  the  materials  for  nature-study, 
with  special  reference  to  animals.  No  other  book  so  well  presents  the 
animal  aspect.  Full  of  inspiration  and  practical  suggestions.) 

Hodge,  C.  H.  Foundations  of  Nature  Study.  Article  in  PEDAGOG- 
ICAL SEMINARY,  Vols.  VI.  and  VII. 

Scott,  C.  B.  Nature  Study  and  the  Child.  Boston,  Heath.  1900. 
(Primarily  a  discussion  of  aims  and  principles  of  nature- study.  Also  has 
practical  suggestions  for  lessons.) 

Lange,  D.  Handbook  of  Nature  Study.  New  York,  Macmillan. 
1899.  Pp.  329. 

Jenkins,  O.  P.,  and  Kellogg,  V.  L.  Lessons  in  Nature  Study.  San 
Francisco,  Whittaker  &  Ray.  1900.  Pp.  191.  (A  collection  of  lesson 
plans,  many  of  them  on  animals.) 

NATURE-STUDY  LEAFLETS,  published  by  Cornell  University. 

Jackman,  W.  S.  Nature  Study  for  Grammar  Grades.  New  York, 
Macmillan.  1899.  ^P-  4°7-  (Several  books  with  similar  titles  are  by 
the  same  author,  but  this  one  gives  a  fair  view  of  the  nature-study  for 
which  he  stands.) 

"Wilson,  Mrs.  L.  L.  Nature  Study  in  the  Elementary  Schools. 
Teachers'  Manual.  New  York,  Macmillan.  1899.  (A  series  of  practical 
suggestions  for  lessons  in  nature-study.) 

Howe,  E.  G.  Systematic  Science  Teaching.  New  York,  Apple- 
ton.  1894.  Pp.  326.  $1.50.  (Suggestions  for  a  series  of  progressive 


NATURE-STUDY  AND  HUMAN  PHYSIOLOGY    321 

lessons  in  nature-study,  involving  the  biological,  geographical,  and 
physico-chemical  aspects.) 

Hall,  W.  S.  SCHOOL  SCIENCE,  Vol.  I.,  p.  60.  (Refers  to  nature- 
study  as  preparatory  to  high-school  biology.) 

Discussion  on  nature-study  by  Professors  Beal,  Packard,  Coulter, 
Gillette,  W.  M.  Davis,  Verrill,  Jordan,  and  Macbride.  SCIENCE,  N.  s., 
Vol.  XVI.,  pp.  910-913.  December  5,  1902. 

i.    The  Relation  of  Nature-Study  to  High-School  Zoology. 

STARTING  at  the  very  foundation  of  nature-study  for  elemen- 
tary schools,  we  note  that  the  most  fully  developed  type  of 
nature-study  stands  for  the  following  aims,  which  ^^of 
we  here  apply  directly  to  the  animal  aspect  of  the  Nature-study. 
subject :  ( i )  To  give  the  pupils  acquaintance  and  sympathy 
with  common  animals  ;  (2)  To  lay  the  foundation  of  scientific 
education  by  leading  the  pupils  to  gain  some  knowledge  through 
their  own  observations  on  animals,  and  to  appreciate  the  knowl- 
edge so  gained;  (3)  To  give  the  pupils  useful  knowledge 
about  animals,  especially  in  their  relation  to  man.1 

Assuming  that  these  aims  meet  in  practice  with  a  fair  degree 
of  realization  —  and  the  writer  is  convinced  that  this  is  true 
—  it  is  clear  that  animal  nature-study  must  be 
important  in  general  education.  That  the  aim  tance  in Edu- 
for  acquaintance  with  animals  stands  for  something 
full  of  interest  for  intelligent  people  need  not  be  argued  in 
these  days  when  there  is  such  a  great  popular  demand  for 
books  purporting  to  help  in  identification  of  animals.  The 
aim  for  sympathy  finds  its  support  in  the  arguments  on  moral 
and  aesthetic  lines.  The  second  aim,  standing  as  it  does  for 
scientific  seeing  and  thinking,  requires  here  no  special  defence  ; 
for  such  training  is  now  universally  accepted  as  valuable  in  all 
education,  and  the  tendency  of  recent  years  has  been  to  em- 


1  This  order  of  statement  is  not  intended  to  indicate  the  order  of 
importance.  On  this  point  authors  disagree ;  but  the  writer's  personal 
view  is  that  all  are  important  and  should  receive  attention,  for  there  is 
really  no  conflict.  Bailey  (loc.  cit.}  emphasizes  the  first  aim,  Hodge  lays 
stress  on  the  third,  and  all  authors  insist  that  nature-study  must  be 
taught  on  a  basis  of  observation  (the  second  aim). 

21 


322  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

phasize  the  necessity  for  special  training  in  observation.1  The 
third  aim  is  for  information  which  is  useful  and  interesting  for 
its  own  sake  and  which  may  later  come  into  relation  with 
advanced  studies. 

With  this  view  of  the  relation  of  nature-study  to  general 
education,  we  may  now  discuss  the  first  of  the  special  problems 
Nature-Study  °^  tn^s  cnaPter>  namely,  the  relation  of  the  animal 
fn  th?H?|?  nature-study  of  the  elementary  school  to  the  study 
School.  Of  zoology  in  the  high  school.  For  this  purpose 

we  must  first  consider  the  relation  of  nature-study  to  the  so- 
called  "  natural  history  "  of  animals  which  has  been  referred 
to  as  constituting  a  very  prominent  part  of  many  high-school 
courses  in  zoology.'2  Our  inquiry  must  now  be  whether  this  is 
the  proper  place  for  this  work ;  and  in  considering  this  ques- 
tion I  shall  attempt  to  show  that  much  of  the  natural  history 
properly  belongs  in  the  elementary  schools  as  part  of  the 
nature-study. 

Examining  the  contents  of  the  natural  history  which  is  now 
common  in  secondary  schools,  we  find  that  the  work  consists 

largely  of  observations  on  the  external  structures, 
Natural  His-  ,  f.  ,..  ,  .  ...  ' 

toryinfflgh     habits,    life-histories,    and    economic    relations    of 

common  animals.  The  aims  of  such  work  may  be 
well  expressed  by  quotations  from  Professor  Davenport,  whose 
leadership  has  inspired  and  guided  the  return  to  the  old-time 
instruction  in  natural  history.  He  wrote  in  the  preface  to  the 
Introduction  to  Zoology  : 

"  What  an  ordinary  citizen  needs  is  an  acquaintance  with  the 
common  animals  that  may  be  the  companions  of  his  country  walks, 
and  that  may  even  stray  into  Wall  Street,  Dearborn  Street,  or 
Commonwealth  Avenue.  He  wants  to  know  where  else  over  the 
world  the  common  animals  of  his  State  are  to  be  found  and,  as  a 
legislator  or  as  a  taxpayer,  he  wants  to  know  how  animals  affect 
man.  It  is  more  important  for  him  to  know  these  matters  than  to 


1  See  especially  Eliot's  Educational  Reform,  p.  112. 

2  Natural  history  in  the  high-school  course  is  discussed  in  Chapter 
II.,  and  its  relation  to  the  college  work  in  zoology  in  Chapter  XI. 


NATURE-STUDY  AND  HUMAN  PHYSIOLOGY  323 

know  the  location  of  the  pedal  ganglion  of  the  snail,  or  to  be  able 
to  recite  the  various  ingenious  hypotheses  of  the  ancestry  of  echino- 
denms.  Our  conviction  is,  we  feel  sure,  the  common  conviction  of 
college  teachers  of  zoology,  who  have  often  occasion  to  deplore  the 
ignorance  that  their  students  show  about  common  animals.  It  is 
the  conviction  of  many  other  thoughtful  men  also  who  have  recog- 
nized that  an  interest  in  nature  is  a  powerful  agent  in  making  men 
more  moral,  more  capable  of  appreciating  the  world  they  live  in, 
and  of  finding  satisfaction  in  living." 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  emphasis  is  placed  upon  acquaintance 
with  common  animals,  their  economic  relation  to  man  and 
interest  in  nature.  Such  a  statement  of  the  aims  and  nature 
of  the  subject-matter  suggests  great  similarity  between  the 
natural  history  of  common  animals  in  the  high  school  and 
the  nature-study  of  the  elementary  school.  But  general  state- 
ments may  mislead,  and  a  more  specific  examination  of  natural 
history  is  necessary. 

The  common  animals  which  have  been  introduced  into  the 
natural-history  work  of  the  secondary  school  are  :  grasshopper, 
butterfly,  beetle,  fly,  crayfish,  myriapod,  spider,  scope  of  Nat- 
earthworm,  slug,  clam,  fish,  newt,  frog,  lizard,  bird,  ^m^story 
and  mouse.  As  to  the  scope  of  natural-history  Schools, 
studies  of  these  animals,  reference  must  be  made  to  the  out- 
lines in  published  guides  for  practical  work.  Davenport's 
Introduction  to  Zoology  (pp.  341-367)  gives  for  most  of  the 
above  animals  directions  for  observations  on  the  living  animals. 
Likewise,  Needham's  Lessons  in  Zoology  gives  numerous  sug- 
gestions for  observations  on  common  animals,  especially  in 
the  field ;  and  still  other  books  for  secondary  schools  which 
emphasize  natural  history  are  French's  Animal  Activities  and 
Colton's  new  text-book  and  guide. 

In  all  these  books  a  large  percentage  of  the  suggested  studies 
of  living  animals  are  so  simple  that  they  are  well  within  the 
capabilities  of  pupils    in  elementary  grades.     In   NaturalHis- 
fact,  many  of  the  simple  experiments  and  observa-   mentaryEle 
tions  suggested  in  these  books  have  already  been   Schools, 
successfully  introduced  into  elementary  work  as  part  of  the 


324  THE   TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

nature-studies.  There  is  no  reason  inherent  in  the  nature  of 
the  materials  and  methods  why  a  considerable  part  of  the 
simple  observations  on  common  living  animals  along  the  tine 
of  natural  history  should  not  be  done  in  the  elementary  school. 
In  fact,  I  am  inclined  to  believe  that  the  pupil  who  has  passed 
through  a  well-organized  system  of  nature-study  in  the  ele- 
mentary school  has  that  general  acquaintance  with  common 
animals  which  is  regarded  as  desirable  for  entrance  upon  the 
elementary  zoological  work  of  colleges.  But  at  any  rate  all 
will  agree  that  so  much  of  the  natural  history  as  can  be  well 
done  in  the  nature-study  should  be  placed  there,  instead  of  in 
the  high  school. 

From  the  point  of  view  of  zoology  in  the  secondary  school 
it  would  be  a  decided  advance  if  the  simple  natural- history 

work  could  be  transferred  to  the  nature-study  of 
Effect  upon  .  .  .  ,  „„.  .  ,  . 

High-School      the  elementary  school.     There  would   be   a  gain 

(i)  in  that  the  high-school  pupils  would  be  pre- 
pared to  begin  the  serious  study  of  the  science  of  zoology 
without  any  preliminary  work  designed  for  training  in  observa- 
tion, stimulating  interest,  and  giving  acquaintance  with  common 
animals,1  and  (2)  in  that  the  nature  of  much  of  the  work 
makes  it  better  adapted  to  elementary  than  to  high-school 
pupils.  The  first  point  will  be  granted  without  discussion, 
but  the  second  requires  explanation  and  defence. 

It  is  the  experience  of  many  teachers  that  secondary  pupils 
do  not   undertake  certain  studies  of  living  animals  with  the 

enthusiasm    and    earnestness    which    characterize 
Natural  His- 
tory well         nature-studies   in   the   elementary  school,  and    to 
adapted  to 

Elementary  the  average  secondary  pupil  studies  of  living  ani- 
mals are  not  part  of  serious  science  work.  In  fact, 
since  the  advent  of  the  purely  natural- history  courses  in 
high  schools  there  are  many  indications  that  the  pupils  who 
study  physical  as  well  as  biological  sciences,  tend  to  regard 


1  See  discussion  on  natural  history  as  a  preparation  for  high-school 
zoology  in  the  chapter  on  "  Beginning  Work  in  Zoology." 


NA  TURE-STUD  Y  A  ND  HUM  A  N  PH  YSIOLOG  Y    325 

biology,  and  especially  zoology,  as  an  "  easy  "  subject  which 
has  scarcely  the  dignity  of  the  other  sciences,  like  chemistry 
and  physics.  I  am  inclined  to  agree  with  the  pupils  on  this 
point.  I  doubt  whether  it  is  possible  to  present  a  high-school 
course  dealing  exclusively  or  even  largely  with  natural  history 
which  will  lead  pupils  to  the  serious  attitude  demanded  by  all 
the  other  sciences.  This  is  the  result  of  the  very  nature  of 
the  materials.  A  trained  naturalist  may  see  problems  of  pro- 
found significance  in  the  wriggling  of  a  worm  or  the  jump  of 
an  insect,  but  to  a  beginner  in  zoology  there  can  be  little  more 
to  gain  than  some  isolated  facts,  which  may  be  interesting,  but 
with  little  apparent  significance,  for  in  such  studies  the  ac- 
cumulated facts  of  a  series  of  observations  on  living  animals 
do  not  seem  to  the  pupil  to  lead  in  any  definite  direction  to  a 
principle  or  generalization.  In  short,  the  facts  of  natural  his- 
tory are  largely  unorganized  and  unorganizable  by  high-school 
pupils,  and  for  this  reason  they  do  not  appeal  as  seriously  to 
pupils  as  do  the  usual  studies  of  other  sciences,  or  even  of 
other  phases  of  zoological  study.  These  objections  do  not 
obtain  in  the  elementary  schools.  Experience  shows  that  the 
young  pupils  become  seriously  interested  in  many  little  prob- 
lems of  natural  history  which  the  average  high-school  pupils 
regard  as  not  worth  their  while.  This  is  because  the  younger 
pupils  are  still  in  the  stage  where  they  are  content  to  take 
each  little  fact  for  its  own  sake  without  reference  to  its  broader 
relations.  In  fact,  the  simplest  problems,  and  often  those  with 
little  significance,  are  usually  very  interesting  to  the  pupils  of 
the  elementary  schools,  and  these  are  often  the  most  valuable 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  leading  aims  of  nature-study. 
Thus,  the  movements  of  an  animal  are  entrancing  for  most 
children  in  the  lower  grades,  and  offer  a  great  opportunity  for 
developing  interest  and  giving  training  in  accuracy  of  observ- 
ing; but  on  the  other  hand  such  a  fact  as  cross- fertilization 
of  flowers,  which  is  full  of  biological  significance,  means  nothing 
very  interesting  to  the  pupils  in  the  elementary  school.  These 
conditions  are  just  reversed  in  the  secondary  school.  The 


326  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

pupil  who  has  come  to  grapple  with  the  problems  of  mathe- 
matics beyond  arithmetic,  with  those  of  physics  and  chemistry 
and  with  the  intricacies  of  the  syntax  of  classical  languages,  is 
not  likely  to  see  much  else  than  recreation  and  entertainment 
in  the  study  of  grasshopper's  jumps  and  similar  animal  activ- 
ities. Of  course  there  is  great  significance  in  these,  but  the 
specialist  in  zoology  who  sees  this  must  not  deceive  himself 
into  believing  that  the  high-school  pupil  agrees  with  him  in 
taking  such  studies  seriously.  The  fact  is  that  the  pupil  de- 
mands something  which  directly  appeals  to  him  as  significant 
and  worthy  of  serious  attention.  This  is  offered  him  in  most 
of  the  studies  of  the  high  school,  and  the  time  has  come 
when  zoology  too  must  be  taught  on  the  same  basis.  It  is  no 
longer  justifiable  to  teach  zoology  in  the  high  school  simply 
for  the  sake  of  interest  in  animal  life,  for  this  can  be  done  and 
far  better  done  in  the  nature-study  of  the  elementary  schools. 
In  the  secondary  school  zoology  must  be  presented  for  the 
sake  of  the  principles  which,  like  those  of  physics  and  chemis- 
try, will  appeal  to  pupils  because  of  their  value  as  knowledge ; 
and  for  the  teaching  of  the  more  or  less  isolated  facts  of 
natural  history  for  the  sake  of  interest  and  general  acquaint- 
ance with  animals  we  must  look  to  the  nature-study  of  the 
elementary  schools. 

In  opposition  to  the  position  here  taken,  it  will  probably  be 
pointed  out  that  as  yet  few  elementary  schools  have  developed 
An  opposing  nature-study  so  as  to  be  able  to  do  the  kind  of 
Argument.  natural  history  which  we  have  been  considering, 
and  that  here  is  an  argument  for  including  this  in  the  general 
course  in  zoology  for  high  schools.  It  is  true  that  this  fact 
must  largely  govern  our  present  practice ;  but  with  nature- 
study  for  the  elementary  school  already  in  a  state  of  rapid 
development  we  must  begin  to  look  forward  to  the  time  when 
a  large  part  of  the  natural  history  now  commonly  assigned  to 
the  high  school  will  be  finally  placed  in  the  elementary  school. 

Summarizing  the  foregoing  considerations,  it  is  urged  that 
teachers  of  biological  science  in  high  schools  should  recognize 


NATURE-STUDY  AND  HUMAN  PHYSIOLOGY    327 

the  importance  of  the  natural- history  studies  of  common 
animals  in  the  elementary  school,  for  the  reasons  that  (i)  the 
results  to  be  expected  from  such  studies  are  more 
satisfactorily  obtained  with  the  younger  pupils  than 
in  the  high  school,  and  (2)  the  secondary-school  work  in 
zoology  should  be  relieved  of  much  of  this  kind  of  work  which 
when  made  prominent  interferes  with  the  serious  study  of 
zoology  as  a  science.  Upon  all  teachers  interested  in  zoology 
for  the  high  school  there  is  the  duty  of  aiding  in  every  possible 
way  the  development  of  the  animal  nature-study  in  the  ele- 
mentary school,  thereby  making  a  freer  field  for  the  high-school 
course  in  serious  zoology  and  at  the  same  time  gaining  an  im- 
portant preliminary  to  the  high-school  studies.  Finally,  to  guard 
against  any  possible  misunderstanding,  let  it  be  repeated  that 
we  must  regard  the  present  prominence  of  natural  history  in 
the  high  school  as  a  temporary  necessity,  but  with  the  coming 
development  of  nature-study  in  the  lower  schools  natural 
history  in  high-school  study  will  deserve  a  place  as  incidental 
and  supplemental  to  the  study  of  the  elementary  principles 
of  zoology  —  a  position  which  it  often  has  even  in  college 
courses. 

2.  The  Relation  of  "  Human  Physiology  "  to  Nature-Study  and 
Zoology.1 

Probably  it  will  not  be  disputed  as  a  general  principle  that 
the  biological  work  of  the  public  schools  should  be  a  continu- 
ous  development  from   the   nature- study    of  the   Continuity  ^ 
earliest  grades  of  the  elementary  school  through-   Biological 
out  the  courses  in  botany  and  zoology  in  the  high 
school.     In  discussing  the  relation  of  the  elementary  nature- 
study  to  the  zoological  courses  of  the  secondary  school,  we 
have  already  seen  that  the  elementary  study  may  contribute  to 


1  In  the  first  pages  of  Chapter  XII.  it  is  pointed  out  that  "physiology" 
taught  in  our  schools  is  more  than  the  science  of  functions  referred  to 
in  Chapter  II.  The  quotation  marks  in  this  section  will  avoid  possible 
confusion. 


328  THE   TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

this  result  by  preparing  both  in  discipline  and  in  knowledge 
for  the  more  advanced  science  work,  especially  the  biological. 
From  the  same  point  of  view  let  us  now  consider  the  relation 
of  the  "  physiology  "  of  the  last  year l  of  the  elementary  school 
which  in  the  ordinary  curriculum  stands  between  nature-study 
of  the  lower  grades  and  the  science  work  of  the  high  school. 

In  disciplinary  value  "  physiology  "  as  usually  taught  differs 
radically  from  all  other  biological  science  work  in  the  schools, 
Continuity  in  f°r  both  nature-study  and  the  courses  in  botany 
Discipline.  an(j  zo51ogy  in  the  high  school  are  commonly 
based  upon  the  pupil's  own  observations  and  experiments, 
rather  than  upon  a  text-book.  The  common  method  of 
teaching  "  elementary  physiology "  from  a  text-book  makes 
a  serious  break  in  the  continuity  of  the  scientific  discipline  to 
which  all  science  study  should  contribute. 

With  regard  to  the  general  relation  of  the  subject-matter  of 
"  physiology  "  to  that  of  nature-study  on  the  one  hand  and 

high-school  biology  on  the  other,  "  physiology  " 
Continuity  in  .  .  .  . 

Subject-  as  presented   in  most  text- books  is  characteristi- 

cally subjective,  whereas  the  nature-study  of  the 
elementary  school  and  the  biological  courses  of  the  high 
school  are  decidedly  objective.  "  Physiology "  is  centred 
around  an  introspective  study  of  the  human  body  viewed  as  quite 
independent  of  external  nature.  From  this  extreme  difference 
in  point  of  view  there  results  a  breach  of  continuity  in  the 
development  of  the  subject-matter,  and  so  we  find  nature- 
study  and  "physiology"  commonly  regarded  by  educators  as 
two  distinct  and  quite  independent  phases  of  elementary 
science.  Such  a  division  may  have  its  use  in  a  schedule  of 


1  This  is  not  the  place  for  discussing  the  relation  of  physiology  to  the 
curriculum  of  the  elementary  school,  and  in  explanation  of  this  reference 
to  the  "  last  year  "  I  may  say  in  brief  that  for  many  reasons  I  decidedly 
favor  not  attempting  physiology  before  the  last  year  of  the  elementary 
school.  For  earlier  years  I  regard  simple  lessons  in  hygiene  —  not  as 
separate  lessons,  but  in  close  connection  with  nature-studies  —  most 
satisfactory. 


NATURE-STUDY  AND  HUMAN  PHYSIOLOGY    329 

the  school  program,  but  in  the  outlines  of  courses  there  should 
be  no  such  sudden  transition  from  the  nature-study  to  "  phy- 
siology," and  from  this  back  again  to  external  , 

f  Physiology  as 

nature  as  presented  in  the  biological  work  of  the   the  Out- 
growth of 

high  school.     On  the  contrary,  I  believe  that  much   Wature- 
.    f  .  .         ,      .  Studies, 

advantage  would  result  from  making  the  introduc- 
tion to  the  study  of  the  human  body  a  natural  outgrowth  of  the 
nature-studies  of  the  earlier  years.  The  suggestion  referred  to 
in  the  last  footnote,  that  all  references  to  the  hygiene  of  the 
human  body  during  the  first  six  or  seven  years  of  the  elemen- 
tary-school course  should  be  in  the  line  of  correlations  growing 
out  of  the  nature-studies,  is  an  important  step  in  the  direction 
of  giving  to  the  study  of  the  human  body  an  outlook  upon  the 
relations  of  man  to  external  nature.  And  this  should  continue 
to  be  the  viewpoint  in  the  "  physiology  "  which  in  the  last  year 
of  the  grammar  school  leads  the  pupils  into  the  study  of  the 
internal  life-activities  of  the  human  body.  The  introduction  to 
this  course  in  "  physiology  "  should  be  made  as  a  gradual  transi- 
tion from  the  earlier  nature-study,  by  showing  first  the  relations 
of  man  to  the  objective  world,  both  the  living  and  the  lifeless, 
and  to  the  end  of  the  course  these  relations  should  be  a 
leading  thought  worthy  of  all  possible  emphasis  and  illustration. 
To  put  the  above  ideas  into  practice  is  not  to  attempt 
teaching  by  formulated  statements  that  there  are  certain  rela- 
tions between  man  and  the  external  world,  or  that  the  study 
of  man  is  one  link  in  a  chain  of  sciences  dealing  with  nature 
of  which  man  is  a  part.  Such  word  formulas  would,  of  course, 
be  valueless ;  but  a  well-organized  course  of  study  with  a 
basis  of  observation  and  experiment  on  animals  and  plants 
may  bring  pupils  to  some  definite  realization  of 
many  essential  facts  concerning  the  relation  of  man 
to  nature  by  showing  that  the  study  of  the  human  Biology, 
body  makes  direct  application  of  many  of  the  earlier  nature- 
study  lessons  and  derives  many  of  its  facts  from  studies  of 
living  and  lifeless  things  in  the  objective  world.  All  the 
earlier  nature-study  should  have  led  the  way  to  this,  for  it  will 


330  THE   TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

already  have  given  the  child  some  idea  of  his  relation  to 
nature.  The  study  of  the  human  body  is  then  a  culmination 
of  nature-study.  Along  these  lines,  I  believe  we  should  look 
for  the  continuous  and  logical  development  of  biological  study 
from  the  work  of  the  lower  grades  through  the  study  of 
"  human  physiology "  to  the  more  rigidly  scientific  study  of 
the  biological  sciences  in  the  secondary  school.  This  involves 
nothing  more  in  essentials  than  teaching  "  physiology  "  from 
the  viewpoint  of  the  science  of  biology  which  emphasizes  the 
relationships  of  organisms  to  each  other  and  to  the  lifeless 
world.  With  this  as  a  guiding  principle,  it  is  not  difficult  to 
teach  "  human  physiology  "  as  biological  science,  for  even  the 
most  elementary  study  offers  abundant  opportunities  for  point- 
ing to  the  relationships  between  man's  structure  and  functions 
and  those  of  the  living  and  lifeless  things  in  his  objective 
world.  Especially  is  all  this  readily  accomplished  when  the 
basis  of  the  teaching  is  in  practical  study  of  other  living  and 
lifeless  things  which  help  us  to  interpret  man's  structure,  life- 
activities,  and  relations. 


CHAPTER   V 

THE   POSITION   AND   RELATIONS   OF   ZOOLOGY   IN   THE 
HIGH-SCHOOL    CURRICULUM 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Ward,  H.  B.  Zoology  in  the  High  School.  Proceedings  N.  E.  A., 
1897,  pp.  953-9S8- 

Report  of  Committee  on  Zoology.     Proceedings  N.  E.  A.,  1899. 

Papers  on  Sequence  of  Sciences  in  the  Secondary-School  Curriculum, 
read  before  the  New  York  State  Science  Teachers'  Association.  1899. 
In  High  School  Bulletin,  No.  7,  Univ.  of  State  of  New  York,  Regents' 
Reports,  1900. 

i.    Relation  of  Botany  and  Zoology. 

THE  question  of  the  position  of  zoology  in  the  secondary- 
school  curriculum  is  so  closely  involved  with  that  of  its  relation 
to  botany  that  we  must  first  consider  whether  these  two  as- 
pects of  biology  are  to  be  regarded  as  independent  sciences, 
each  requiring  a  year's  course,  or  whether  a  single  continuous 
course  should  combine  the  study  of  animals  and  plants.  An 
answer  to  these  questions  depends  largely  upon  our  under- 
standing of  the  relation  of  all  the  sciences  to  the  general 
curriculum. 

It  is  first  to  be  noted  that  three  other  sciences  —  physics, 
chemistry,  and  geography  with  geology  —  are  commonly  taught 
in  high  schools.  It  will  be  admitted  beyond  dis-  sciences  in 
pute,  I  think,  that  each  of  these  offers  training  and 
information  which  are  of  importance  from  the 
point  of  view  of  liberal  education.  Moreover,  it  will  probably 
be  generally  admitted  that  it  is  quite  impossible  to  decide 
between  the  importance  of  these  and  the  two  biological 
sciences,  for  all  have  their  strong  points  and  all  touch  some- 
where upon  every-day  human  life,  which  insures  that  the 
elements  of  each  are  bound  to  be  of  interest  to  the  average 


332  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

cultivated  citizen.  The  ideal  science  curriculum,  then,  would 
appear  to  be  one  which  gives  a  place  to  each  of  the  five 
sciences,  and  in  which  these  are  so  arranged  that  all  pupils 
may  have  offered  them  the  opportunity  to  get  a  general  survey 
of  the  field  of  each  science. 

This,  then,  is  the  situation  :  There  are  four  years  of  the 
secondary  school  in  which  the  pupil  may  learn  the  elements 
Four  Years  anc*  &et  a  gnmPse  °f  tne  field  covered  by  the 
of  Sciences.  sciences.  It  is  generally  admitted  that  the  presen- 
tation of  a  science  course  requires  at  least  a  year  of  four  or 
five  hours  weekly.  This  means  that  four  courses  in  science 
will  use  over  one-fourth  of  the  total  time  of  the  secondary 
school,  and  the  remainder  of  the  time  must  be  distributed 
between  the  languages,  literature,  history,  mathematics  —  all 
of  undoubted  importance  in  liberal  education.  A  larger  pro- 
portion of  science  would  certainly  result  in  narrowness  no  less 
open  to  criticism  than  the  extreme  specialization  in  languages 
which  formerly  prevailed,  and  our  conclusion  is  that  four 
courses  in  science  is  the  maximum  allowable  for  liberal 
secondary  education. 

Now  biology,  uniting  zoology  and  botany,  is  only  one  of  the 
four  sciences  under  consideration.  Does  it  deserve  more  than 

one-fourth  of  the  time  allotted  to  the  sciences  ?  In 
One  or  Two  „  .  . 

Years  for         support  of  an  affirmative  answer  to  this  question  it 

is  sometimes  urged  that  since  biology  presents  the 
two  phases,  botany  and  zoology,  the  science  should  have  two 
years  of  the  four  in  the  secondary  school.  This,  of  course, 
necessitates  either  the  omitting  of  one  other  science  or  else 
overreaching  the  limits  of  four  years  of  science  work  by  the 
very  unsatisfactory  arrangement  of  two  courses  of  science  work 
in  one  of  the  school  years. 

In  answer  to  the  argument  for  two  years  of  biology  it  may 
be  urged  that  the  ground  for  this  division  of  biology  seems  not 
Biology  a  Uni-  to  ^>e  we^  ta^enj  f°r  ^  ig  a  unified  science  and  the 
fied  Science,  division  of  subject-matter  into  botany  and  zoology 
is  largely  arbitrary.  "  The  study  of  living  bodies,"  says  Huxley, 


IN  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL   CURRICULUM       333 

"  is  in  reality  one  discipline,  which  is  divided  into  botany  and 
zoology  simply  as  a  matter  of  convenience."  [  Essentially 
there  is  no  wider  gap  between  the  methods  of  study  and  the 
subject-matter  of  botany  and  zoology  than  between  the  so- 
called  organic  and  inorganic  aspects  of  chemistry,  or  between 
the  various  phases  of  physics.  So  far  as  any  sharp  demarka- 
tion  of  subject-matter  and  methods  of  study  are  concerned 
there  is,  then,  no  sufficient  reason  for  regarding  zoology  and 
botany  as  two  distinct  sciences,  each  claiming  a  place  in  the 
secondary  curriculum. 

A  more  reasonable  argument  favoring  the  subdivision  of 
biology  into  two  separate  courses  of  zoology  and  botany  arises 
from  the  impossibility  of  covering  the  field  of  biol- 
ogy  in  one  year  of  five  hours  per  week.  But  it 
is  likewise  impossible  to  "  complete "  chemistry, 
physics,  or  geography  in  a  single  year.  At  best  Necessary, 
high-school  science  courses  are  simply  an  introduction  to  the 
general  methods  and  principles  of  the  sciences,  and  anything 
approaching  mastery  of  even  limited  phases  of  the  subject- 
matter  is  impossible.  The  fact,  then,  that  both  the  animal  and 
plant  phases  of  biology  cannot  be  completely  presented  in  a 
single  year  offers  no  convincing  argument  for  departure  from 
the  ideal  plan  of  offering  in  secondary  schools  four  years  of 
science  of  which  biology  counts  as  one.  If  the  subject-matter 
as  presented  by  specialists  in  either  botany  or  zoology  is  too 
extensive  for  such  time  limitation,  a  concentration  of  attention 
upon  essential  principles  and  selection  of  the  most  important 
material  is  surely  needed.2  The  teacher  of  chemistry  does 
not  attempt  to  instruct  a  high-school  class  about  the  chemistry 


1  Preface  to  Practical  Biology,  by  Huxley  and  Martin. 

2  "  Zoology  is  still  an  arduous  and  extensive  study,  which  must  be  re- 
duced  by  selection,  until  even  whole  classes,  not  to  speak  of  Natural 
Orders,  Genera,  and  Species,  are  left  unrepresented  in  a  tolerably  ex- 
tended course.     Still  the  groundwork  may  be  laid  for  following  out  the 
subject,  which  is  all  that  teaching  can  do,  or  should  attempt,  for  rrany 
of  the  most  fruitful  regions  of  knowledge."  —  Alexander  Bain,  Educa- 
tion as  a  Science.     1878.     Appleton's  Edition,  p.  302. 


334  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

of  all  the  elements ;  on  the  contrary,  there  is  selection  of  the 
most  common  ones  and  these  are  used  to  illustrate  the  general 
principles  of  the  science.  But  in  the  teaching  of  elementary 
biology  we  have  yet  to  learn  concentration  of  attention  upon 
important  and  fundamental  principles,  and  to  spend  less  time 
upon  the  details  of  which  organisms  present  unlimited  variety. 
In  biology,  as  in  the  physical  sciences,  we  must  come  to  select 
a  limited  number  of  common  types  as  a  basis  for  general 
principles ;  and  other  forms  of  animals  and  plants  will  be 
presented  to  the  pupils  simply  for  the  sake  of  acquaintance. 
Viewed  from  this  standpoint  there  seems  to  be  no  good  reason 
why  the  important  facts  of  animal  and  plant  life  may  not  be 
incorporated  into  a  year's  course  in  biology,  which  shall  have 
a  place  in  the  curriculum  equal  with  that  held  by  the  other 
three  sciences,  chemistry,  physics,  and  geography.  It  is  prob- 
able that  the  advantages  of  such  a  course  would  be  generally 
recognized  at  once  were  it  clearly  worked  out  in  some  text- 
book and  laboratory  guide ;  but  unfortunately  high-school 
biology  yet  awaits  the  coming  of  an  author  who  will  be  able 
to  develop  a  course  of  general  principles  adapted  to  that 
grade  of  work  as  well  as  Parker's  Elementary  Biology  and 
Sedgwick  and  Wilson's  General  Biology  solve  the  problem  of 
one  general  course  for  college  students  who  cannot  take  more 
than  one  general  course  in  biological  sciences.  But  sooner  or 
later  such  a  book  dealing  with  the  essentials  of  the  science 
will  be  written,  and  when  it  comes  we  shall  see  clearly  that 
our  present  special  books  in  botany  and  zoology  deal  with  vast 
masses  of  details  which  are  unessential  to  the  general  view  of 
the  great  ideas  of  the  science  of  life. 

So  far  no  reference  has  been  made  to  possible  specialization 
in  any  science  at  the  choice  of  the  pupil,  for  some  individuals 

will  prefer  a  certain  science  and  will  choose  to  pur- 
Advanced  -     ,  ,  rM,     11        1 

Elective          sue   it  to  the  exclusion  of  the  others.     Shall  ad- 
vanced elective   courses  be  provided  for  such  as 
these  ?     I  believe  that  as  a  rule  such  provision  for  specialization 
should  be  discouraged  in  all  science  departments  in  the  average 


IN  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL   CURRICULUM        335 

secondary  schools.  Of  course  there  are  exceptional  cases,  as 
in  special  high  schools  which  emphasize  certain  applied 
sciences.  At  any  rate,  the  question  of  encouraging  specializa- 
tion by  offering  elective  courses  in  any  or  all  of  the  sciences  is 
one  which  concerns  only  a  limited  number  of  individuals  and 
schools,  and  this  can  be  provided  for  independently  of  a 
general  scheme  which  applies  to  the  great  majority  of  pupils. 
For  the  masses  of  pupils  and  in  most  high  schools  the  general 
introductory  courses  in  each  science  alone  are  needed,  and 
the  question  of  advanced  electives  should  not  be  allowed  to 
influence  the  general  arrangement  or  scope  of  the  science 
courses  in  the  regular  curriculum. 

It   is   sometimes  urged   that  if  a  year  of  biology  is  to  be 
ranked  with  equally  extensive  courses  in   each  of  the  other 

sciences,  that  year  should  not  be  divided  between 

Half-year 

animals  and  plants,  giving  each  phase  one-half  Courses  corn- 
year,  but  that  pupils  should  be  allowed  a  choice 
between  a  year  of  botany  and  a  year  of  zoology.  The  argu- 
ment for  this  is  that  a  half-year  is  insufficient  for  either  botany 
or  zoology  and  that  a  year  in  biology  is  equivalent  to  two 
distinct  half-year  courses  with  a  serious  break  at  the  middle 
of  the  year  when  the  transition  from  the  study  of  animals  to 
that  of  plants,  or  vice  versa,  is  made.  In  answer  to  the  first 
part  of  this  argument,  it  has  already  been  pointed  out  that  so 
far  as  the  essential  facts  and  principles  are  concerned  the 
ordinary  courses  in  botany  and  zoology  are  capable  of  great 
condensation ;  and  with  regard  to  sudden  transition,  there  is 
no  great  difference  in  subject-matter  and  methods.  It  is 
possible  to  correlate  the  zoology  and  botany  work  of  the  two 
half-years,  so  that  the  result  is  a  general  course  in  biology  in- 
volving a  wide  survey  of  animal  and  plant  life.  Moreover, 
there  is  a  strong  argument  against  the  proposition  of  allowing 
a  choice  between  a  year  of  botany  and  one  of  zoology  and  in 
favor  of  one  in  biology.  It  is  this :  either  of  the  separate 
courses  fail  to  give  the  well-rounded  view  of  life  phenomena 
which  is  desirable  in  liberal  education ;  and  since  compara- 


THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

lively  few  pupils  can  take  both  courses  without  omitting  one 
of  the  other  important  sciences,  we  are  again  led  to  decide  in 
favor  of  an  introductory  course  which  includes  a  summary  of 
zoology  and  botany  in  a  continuous  year's  course.  Along 
these  lines  we  may  then  defend  the  course  consisting  of  two 
half-year  courses  in  zoology  and  botany  which,  in  the  absence 
of  suitable  guides  for  close  unification,  teachers  are  now  forced 
to  follow ;  but  in  doing  so  we  must  emphasize  the  importance 
of  continuity  and  correlation  between  the  two  half-year 
courses.  All  this,  however,  is  merely  suggesting  a  temporary 
compromise  looking  forward  to  the  time  when  a  unified  course 
in  biology  will  make  it  unnecessary  and  quite  undesirable  to 
draw  any  line  between  botany  and  zoology,  as  the  present 
arrangement  of  separate  text-books  and  guides  now  practically 
require  in  most  high  schools. 

Another  objection  to  a    year's  course   in   biology   for   the 
high  school  is   that  most  colleges  which  accept  botany  and 

zoology  for  admission  require  full-year  courses  in 
mission  either  botany  or  zoology  in  the  last  years  of 

high  school.  However,  the  fact  that  this  applies 
to  comparatively  few  pupils  should  prevent  it  from  having 
any  weight  in  the  consideration  of  a  general  scheme  of 
courses.  Furthermore,  there  are  signs  that  the  college  demand 
for  separate  courses  in  botany  and  zoology  is  weakening,  and 
several  important  steps  have  been  taken  towafds  recognizing 
for  college  admission  a  course  involving  both  plants  and 
animals. 

As  a  compromise  with  the  present  college   requirements, 
advanced  elective   courses  in   zoology  and  in  botany  in  the 

fourth  year  will  provide  for  those  few  pupils  who 
Course  as  a  wish  to  offer  these  sciences  for  college  admission. 

This  arrangement  will  provide,  also,  for  those  whose 
interest  may  lead  them  to  more  study  of  the  life-sciences  than 
was  given  in  the  general  introductory  course.  A  plan  similar 
to  this  has  recently  been  adopted  for  the  public  high  schools 
of  Greater  New  York ;  a  course  in  biology  (botany,  zoology, 


TN  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL   CURRICULUM        337 

and  human  physiology)  in  the  first  year  for  all  pupils  may 
in  the  fourth  year  be  supplemented  by  an  elective  course 
presenting  botany  and  zoology  as  separate  subjects. 

The  conclusion  of  our  inquiry  concerning  the  amount  of 
time  which   should   be  assigned  to  biological  science  is  (i) 
that    it   should    be  one  in  four  years  of  science 
courses  in  biology,  geography,  physics,  and  chem- 
istry, and  (2)  that  both  the  animal  and  plant  phases  should 
have  representation  in  this  course.     Again  it  should  be  em- 
phasized that  these  conclusions  apply  to  the  general  condi- 
tions in    secondary    schools,  and  that    such  an   arrangement 
suited  to  the  great  majority  of  pupils  is  not  at  all  opposed  to 
advanced  elective  courses  in  botany  and  zoology  as  separate 
subjects.     These  may  be  taken  after  the  general  introductory 
course  in  biology,   if  it  is  desired  to  allow    more    than    four 
sciences,   or  encourage  specialization   in  one   science    at  the 
price  of  omission  of  others. 

2.    Position  of  the  Biological  in  Relation  to  other  Sciences. 

Reviewing  the  leading  views  and  most  common  practice,  we 
find  that  there  is  a  wide  difference  of  opinion  as  to  whether 
biology  should  come  early  or  late  in  the  high-  Biology  in 
school  curriculum;  or  in  other  words,  whether  it  years  of  th?6 
should  precede  or  follow  the  other  sciences.  In  Curriculum, 
favor  of  one  of  the  two  earlier  years  is  the  present  practice  in 
a  large  number  of  high  schools  and  the  recommendation  of 
several  important  committees,  particularly  at  the  1899  meet- 
ing of  the  National  Educational  Association.  On  the  other 
hand,  there  is  much  in  the  nature  of  the  subject-matter  which 
makes  it  desirable  for  the  pupils  of  the  later  years  of  the  high 
school.  It  has  often  been  advocated  that  the  physical  sciences 
should  precede  the  biological  for  the  reason  that  the  latter, 
especially  in  the  physiological  phase,  deal  considerably  with 
principles  of  chemistry  and  physics ;  but  in  discussing  the 
position  of  human  physiology  in  the  high  school  (Chapter 
XII.)  it  is  pointed  out  that  so  far  as  secondary  work  is  con- 


338  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

cerned  only  the  simplest  principles  of  the  physical  sciences  are 
needed  and  that  these  can  be  taught  in  connection  with  the 
biological  course.  It  follows  that  the  sequence  of  the  biologi- 
cal and  physiological  sciences  in  the  secondary  school  cannot 
be  determined  upon  the  basis  of  considerations  regarding 
correlations  of  subject-matter. 

The  chief  argument  which  has  been  advanced  for  zoology  in 
the  earlier  years  of  the  high-school  course  is  the  claim  that  the 
younger  pupils  have  more  interest  in  the  study  of 
Pupils  in  animals.  This,  I  am  convinced,  involves  a  question 
of  the  kind  of  work.  We  must  remember  that  the 
argument  for  this  position  of  zoology  has  come  forward  in  these 
later  years  when  natural  history  has  become  a  prominent  part 
of  the  high-school  work.  That  interest  in  this  line  comes 
early  is  the  main  thesis  in  Chapter  IV. ;  and  there  is  no  doubt 
about  the  advisability  of  placing  a  course  consisting  largely  of 
natural  history  in  the  first  year  of  the  high  school  rather  than 
in  a  late  year. 

But  in  discussions  in  Chapters  II.  and  IV.  we  see  reasons  for 
regarding  natural  history  as  inadequate  in  itself  for  high-school 
Third  or  study  of  animals.  The  essential  question,  then,  is 
Fo^Zodiogy1*  concernmg  the  position  of  a  course  in  the  general 
as  a  Science,  science  of  zoology  which  is  defended  in  Chapter  II. 
It  is  reasonable  to  expect  that  interest  in  principles  will  be 
greater  on  the  part  of  pupils  of  the  later  years,  and  cer- 
tainly the  work  leading  to  the  principles  is  difficult  enough 
to  demand  all  the  attention  of  the  older  pupils.  For  these 
reasons  the  writer  favors  the  third  or  fourth  years  for  a  course 
in  the  science  of  zoology,  or  for  a  course  in  the  principles  of 
biology  such  as  is  advocated  in  the  preceding  section  of  this 
chapter. 

But  if  local  conditions  make  it  impossible  to  place  zoology, 
or  biology,  in  one  of  the  last  two  years  of  the  high  school,  then 
First  Year,  I  should  still  advocate  the  same  kind  of  a  course 
if  Necessary.  for  even  the  first  year.  Of  course,  it  would  neces- 
sarily be  modified  in  the  direction  of  greater  simplicity,  but  I 


IN  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL   CURRICULUM        339 

should  aim  to  teach  essentially  the  same  general  ideas  of  the 
science.  The  line  of  work  covered  in  the  outline  given  in 
Chapter  VIII.  is  in  my  opinion  best  adapted  to  third  or  fourth 
year  pupils,  but  in  its  essentials  the  writer  has  in  actual  experi- 
ence found  it  more  satisfactory  for  average  first  year  pupils 
than  work  limited  to  natural  history. 

By  way  of  summary  of  statements  made  in  this  and  inciden- 
tally in  earlier  chapters,  I  wish  to  say  that  from  my  present 
point  of  view  the  most  satisfactory  arrangement  of 
biology  in  schools  below  college  would  include  (i)    rangement of 
nature-study,  presenting  natural  history  of  common    sciences  be- 
animals,  in  the  elementary  school;    (2)   a  year's 
course   in  physiology  —  drawing  materials  from   animals  and 
plants  and  with  special  application  to  the  human  body  —  in  the 
eighth  grade  when  some  simple  laboratory  facilities  are  available, 
otherwise  in  the  first  year  of  the  high  school;  and  (3)  finally 
a  year  course  in  the  principles  of  general  biology  in  the  third 
or  fourth  year  of  the  high  school.     This,  in  brief,  is  the  gen- 
eral scope  and  arrangement  of  the   biological  work  which  I 
consider  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  majority  of  schools  and 
pupils. 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE   BEGINNING    WORK   IN   ZOOLOGY 

IN  a  previous  discussion  of  the  aims  of  zoological  teaching 
in  secondary  schools,  emphasis  has  been  given  those  relating 
to   scientific  discipline  and   to  knowledge  of  the 
of  the  Begin-    great  principles  of  the  science  of  zoology.     Satis- 
factory fulfilment  of  these  aims  depends,  I  believe, 
in  no  small  measure  upon  the  start  which  pupils  are  given  in 
their  zoological  studies.     This  opinion  leads  me  to  give  prom- 
inence to  a  discussion  of  the  beginning  work ;  and  in  this 
chapter  it  will  be  considered  under  the  following  topics  : 

(i)  The  place  of  natural  history  in  beginning  work,  (2)  the 
introduction  to  physiological  study,  (3)  unicellular  and  mul- 
ticellular  animals  as  introductory  types,  and  (4)  introduction 
to  zoological  principles  by  the  study  of  one  animal  from  the 
points  of  view  of  general  zoology. 

i.    Natural  History  in  beginning  Zoology.1 

"  The  study  of  natural  history  [/.  e.,  zoology]  should  begin, 
as  it  does  naturally  begin,  in  childhood,  and  as  it  began  long 

before  there  was  any  exact  zoology,  with  the  ob- 
terest in  Ani-  servation  of  animal  life  in  its  familiar  forms."  In 

these  words  the  author  of  the  charming  Study 
of  Animal  Life,  Professor  J.  Arthur  Thomson, -of  Edinburgh, 
has  expressed  a  general  opinion  of  naturalist  teachers.  Few, 
indeed,  are  they  who  deny  that  the  first  study  of  animal  life 
should  be  a  study  of  living  animals  along  the  lines  of  natural 
history.  It  has  been  stated  that  the  ecological  aspect,  the 


1  Here,  as  elsewhere,  the  phrase  natural  history  is  used,  in  the  ab- 
sence of  a  more  precise  term,  to  indicate  a  general  superficial  survey  of 
animals  for  the  sake  of  interest  and  acquaintance. 


BEGINNING    WORK  IN  ZOOLOGY  341 

central  feature  of  natural  history,  is  to  the  young  mind  the 
most  interesting  side  of  animal  life.  Children  have  much 
interest  in  haunts  and  habits  and  life-histories  and  activities, 
but  very  little  in  structure  except  as  it  evidently  relates  to 
the  life  of  animals.  Recognition  of  this  has  led  teachers  to 
the  view  that  the  study  of  the  science  of  zoology  should  begin 
along  these  lines  of  natural  interest,  for  "  a  circuitous  course  of 
study,  followed  with  natural  eagerness,  will  lead  to  better 
results  than  the  most  logical  of  programmes  if  that  take  no 
root  in  the  life  of  the  student."  1 

The  general  recognition  that  natural  history  interests  the 
average  young  pupil  has  within  recent  years  brought  about  the 
prominence  of  the  study  of  living  animals  in  secondary  schools. 
But  without  reference  to  the  movement  towards  limiting  all 
high-school  zoology  to  the  natural  history  (which  is  discussed 
in  Chapter  II.),  we  must  here  note  that  the  latter  has  an 
important  relation  to  beginning  work.  Recommendations  to 
begin  the  study  of  zoology  with  this  aspect  of  animals  are 
now  common  in  text-books  and  reports  of  committees;  and 
I  believe  it  is  true  that  in  the  great  majority  of  high  schools 
the  beginning  work  in  zoology  is  at  present  natural  history. 

Under  the  existing  conditions  beginning    the    high-school 
work  with  natural  history  meets  the  needs  of  the  pupils,  for 
the  reason  that  in  the  as  yet  incomplete  state  of 
development    of  nature-study  in    the    elementary   Nature- 
schools  a  large  proportion  of  the  pupils  entering 
high  school  are  ignorant  concerning  the  natural  history  and 
even  the  very  existence  of  many  common  animals.     So  long 
as  this  situation  remains  unchanged  it  seems  advisable  that  the 
first  weeks  in  every  elementary  course  of  zoology  in  secondary 
schools  should    be   devoted   to  the   study  of  common  living 
animals  in  the  natural-history  aspect.     However,  when  nature- 
study  becomes    more    firmly    established    in    the    elementary 
school,  it  will  then  be  profitable  to  proceed  directly  in  the 
high  school  with  the  study  of  zoology  as  a  science,  incidentally 

1  From  Thomson's  Study  of  Animal  Life,  3d  edition,  p.  361. 


342  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

introducing  natural  history  when  opportunity  offers.  The 
present  recognition  of  natural  history  in  the  beginning  of  the 
high-school  course  may,  then,  be  regarded  as  a  temporary 
compromise  which  will  become  unnecessary,  because  the  in- 
troduction to  animals  will  come  to  be  made  through  the 
nature-studies  of  the  elementary  school. 

In  Chapter  II.  it  has  been  urged  that  there  are  important 
facts  and  principles  in  each  phase  of  the  science  which  should 
Beginning  be  presented  in  their  natural  relations,  and  that 
Science^f  tms  representation  of  the  general  field  constitutes 
Zoology.  a  Course  in  the  science  of  zoology  in  the  strict 
sense.  It  is  with  the  beginning  work  of  such  a  course  that 
we  are  primarily  concerned  here,  and  to  a  consideration  of 
the  problems  involved  in  introducing  the  principles  of  the 
various  phases  of  the  science  we  may  now  turn. 

2.   Introduction  to  Physiological  Study. 

The  first  problem  which  demands  attention  is  that  of  com- 
bining work  in  morphology  and  physiology.  It  has  been 
Correlation  stated  in  a  general  way  that  morphology  and  phys- 
iology  should  .  be  closely  related  throughout  the 
course  of  zoology,  introducing  the  principles  of 
physiology  with  the  first  animal  which  is  studied  morphologi- 
cally and  later  applying  the  principles  to  other  animals  so  as 
to  make  the  study  comparative.  It  will  now  be  of  interest  to 
consider  in  some  detail  the  nature  of  the  physiological  facts 
to  be  taught  in  the  introductory  work  and  the  methods  of 
presentation. 

Every  text-book  of  zoology  for  secondary  schools  which  has 
touched  upon  physiological  principles  has  failed  to  begin  at 
Physiological  tne  basis  of  physiology.  Many  of  the  authors  ap- 
TextSk aSt  Pear  to  nave  assumed  that  pupils  intuitively  under- 
Zodiogy.  stand  such  processes  as  digestion,  respiration,  ex- 
cretion, etc. ;  and  without  definition  these  terms  are  used 
freely.  Thus,  without  explanation  one  book  informs  the  be- 
ginner that  "  the  kidneys  are  the  excretory  organs  of  the 


BEGINNING    WORK  IN  ZOOLOGY  343 

toad,"  and  similar  examples  may  easily  be  found.  Now  the 
truth  is  that  even  the  majority  of  pupils  who  have  studied 
"  human  physiology  "  in  four  or  five  years  in  elementary 
schools  have  no  scientific  conception  of  the  essential  mean- 
ing of  even  such  a  process  as  digestion,  not  to  mention  the 
more  difficult  excretion,  respiration,  and  assimilation.  The 
majority  of  pupils  entering  high  school  would  define  digestion 
as  a  process  of  preparing  food  "  for  nourishing  the  body," 
which  is  quite  true,  but  hardly  a  strictly  accurate  scientific 
definition.  It  is  necessary,  then,  that  the  essential  principles 
of  physiology  should  be  clearly  presented  at  the  beginning  of 
the  high-school  zoology  ;  and  we  may  not  assume  that  the 
pupils  have  brought  from  the  elementary  school  any  accurate 
knowledge  of  physiological  principles  and  processes. 

In    teaching   principles    of  physiology   in   connection  with 
zoology,  teachers  should  guard  against  the  loose   expressions 
which  unfortunately  have  been  allowed   to  creep 
into   many  elementary  books   on  "  human  physi-   pressions 


ology."  We  are  all  familiar  with  unscientific  ex- 
planations,  such  as,  "  Food  and  blood  are  needed  eac  s' 
to  keep  the  body  alive."  There  are  many  such  phrases  which 
even  some  authors  of  recent  elementary  text-books  of  zoology 
for  high  schools  have  been  guilty  of  using  ;  for  example  :  "The 
lungs  purify  the  blood";  "Digestion  prepares  the  food  to 
nourish  the  body  "  ;  "The  veins  carry  impure  blood  "  ;  "  The 
kidneys  remove  the  waste."  These  are  not  uncommon  state- 
ments which  are  apt  to  be  misleading  —  at  any  rate,  they  are 
scientifically  inaccurate.  In  my  opinion,  the  terms  "  purify," 
"  pure,"  and  "  impure  "  should  not  be  used  even  in  elemen- 
tary physiology.  There  can  be  no  such  thing  as  "  pure  " 
blood  in  the  sense  in  which  it  is  applied  to  blood  returning 
from  the  lungs,  for  the  "  purification  "  in  external  respiration  is 
at  best  only  a  change  in  the  relative  proportions  of  carbon 
dioxide  and  oxygen.  According  to  recent  treatises  venous 
blood  contains  forty-six  volumes  of  carbon  dioxide  in  one 
hundred  of  blood,  and  arterial  blood  contains  forty  —  only  six 


344  THE   TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

lost  in  the  circulation  through  the  lungs.  Similarly,  arterial 
blood  contains  about  twenty  of  oxygen,  and  venous  blood  from 
eight  to  twelve.  Clearly  the  terms  "  pure,"  "  impure,"  and 
"  purify  "  are  very  misleading  as  applied  to  the  gaseous  con- 
tents of  the  blood.  Moreover,  blood  which  is  relatively  "  pure  " 
with  reference  to  oxygen  and  carbon  dioxide  may  be  very  "  im- 
pure "  with  reference  to  nitrogenous  wastes.  It  is  evident  that 
such  terms  would  better  be  avoided  altogether.  Animal  phys- 
iology in  the  high  school  should  be  expressed  in  accurate 
terms,  as  has  long  been  the  practice  in  elementary  mor- 
phology. 

And  now  with  regard  to  beginning  at  the  basis  of  physiology,  I 

would  refer  the  teacher  to  the  chapters  on  "  Why  we  eat  and 

breathe,"    "  Nutrition,"  and  "  Foods  "   (Chapters 

to  Essentials  VIII. ,  IX..  and  X.,  revised  edition.  1808)  in  Mar- 
of  Physiology.  .  ,  __  _  , '  .  ,  _  IT, 

tin  s  Human  Body,  Briefer  Course.      It  has  been 

my  practice  to  introduce  my  secondary-school  class  in  zoology 
to  the  essentials  of  animal  physiology  by  applying  to  the  first 
animal  studied  morphologically  the  logical  development  of 
physiological  principles  which  in  Martin's  text-book  refer 
specifically  to  the  physiology  of  man.  The  outline  of  a  course 
in  zoology  in  Chapter  VIII.  of  this  volume  suggests  the  intro- 
duction to  genera]  principles  of  physiology  as  illustrated  by 
the  crayfish  or  frog.  The  same  topics  developed  in  con- 
nection with  the  morphological  study  of  any  other  animal 
would  give  the  same  conception  of  the  fundamental  physi- 
ological processes  involved  in  the  animal  machine. 

The  first  formal  consideration  of  animal  physiology  neces- 
sarily comes  after  a  general  summary  of  the  structure,  as  indi- 
Study  of  cated  in  the  outline  of  a  course  in  zoology  in 
ISSoieand  Chapter  VIII.  However,  the  study  of  function 
Correlated.  an(j  structure  should  be  kept  closely  correlated, 
as  suggested  in  the  discussion  of  the  value  of  physiology  as  a 
phase  of  zoology  (in  Chapter  II.). 


1  The  contents  of  these  chapters  are  essentially  similar  in  the  older 
editions. 


BEGINNING    WORK  IN  ZOOLOGY  345 

3.   Protozoa  and  Metazoa  as  Introductory  Types. 

One  of  the  most  fundamental  questions  concerning  the  be- 
ginning work  in  elementary  zoology  relates  to  the  selection  of 
the  animal  type  for  the  introductory  study,  for  A  Fundamen. 
upon  whether  a  protozoan  or  a  metazoan  be  ^Question 
chosen  depends  the  nature  of  the  entire  course.  It  will 
therefore  be  of  interest  in  this  connection  to  examine  the  evi- 
dence on  both  sides  of  this  much  discussed  question  regarding 
the  value  of  unicellular  versus  multicellular  animals  as  types  for 
the  introductory  study  of  zoology.  Shall  a  course  in  elemen- 
tary zoology  be  synthetical,  beginning  with  unicellular  animals 
and  then  progressing  towards  the  more  and  more  complex 
forms,  or  shall  the  study  be  analytical,  and  beginning  with  a 
complex  multicellular  animal,  lead  down  the  scale  of  structural 
and  functional  complexity  to  the  simplest  forms?  In  a  purely 
natural-history  course  this  is  a  relatively  unimportant  problem, 
which  may  well  be  neglected  altogether ;  but  it  has  great  sig- 
nificance in  its  relation  to  the  teaching  of  the  fundamental 
principles  of  morphology  and  physiology. 

The  arguments  in  favor  of  beginning  with  the  Protozoa  are 
based  chiefly  on  the  position   of  these  animals  in  systematic 
and  synthetic  morphology  and  physiology.     The 
development  of  the  cell-theory  has  led  both  mor-    Synthetic 
phologists  and  physiologists  to  centre  their  work   z°ology- 
in  the  cell  as  the  synthetic   basis,  and  we  find   in  all  recent 
treatises  that  the   cell  is  regarded    as  the  starting-point   for 
all  discussions  of  morphological  and  physiological  problems. 
This  applies  not  only  to  considerations  of  structure,  functions, 
or  development  of  higher  forms,  but  the  one-celled  animals 
have  come  to  hold  a  prominent  place  as  the  foundation  for 
synthetic  studies  of  animals  in  general ;  and  from  studies  of 
these  simple  forms  we  pass  to  the  more  and  more  complex 
types. 

It  has  been  frequently  stated  that  the  order  from  simple  to 
complex  in  the  development  of  structural  complexity  in  the 


346  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

animal  series  —  the  so-called  "  logical  order  "  —  should  be  fol- 
lowed in  teaching  elementary  zoology,  for  the  reason  that  "  it 
Logical  Order  ^s  best  for  teaching  evolution"  and  "gives  the 
and  Evolution.  prmcipa}  data  for  the  classification  of  animals." 
This,  in  the  opinion  of  the  writer,  is  a  decidedly  fallacious 
assumption.  The  stages  in  increasing  complexity  from  the 
protozoans  to  the  vertebrates  do  not  necessarily  teach  relation- 
ship between  the  animals  in  that  series.  In  the  case  of  the 
usual  series  of  types  with  isolated  representatives  of  the  great 
groups,  the  advance  of  structural  complexity  in  Amoeba,  Hydra, 
earthworm,  crayfish,  etc.,  gives  no  criterion  of  relationships  or 
line  of  derivation  in  this  series,  for  their  differences  are  so 
great  that  to  a  beginner  in  zoology  they  necessarily  stand  as 
absolutely  independent  types  of  animal  forms.  This  has  been 
exactly  the  experience  of  naturalists  in  the  development  of 
the  evolution  idea.  Cuvier  and  many  other  early  zoologists 
were  certainly  familiar  with  types  of  all  the  great  groups  and 
must  have  recognized  the  ascending  series  in  structural  com- 
plexity, and  yet  the  facts  were  not  interpreted  by  them  as 
meaning  relationship  and  evolution.  Likewise,  Darwin  was 
doubtless  familiar  with  the  structure  of  the  phyletic  types  from 
Amoeba  to  man  long  before  studies  of  limited  groups  of  closely 
related  higher  forms  gave  him  the  first  suggestions  of  his  evo- 
lution theories.1  Again,  all  the  great  books  which  deal  with 
the  question  of  the  truth  of  organic  evolution,  as  distinguished 
from  the  factors,  place  little  weight  upon  the  supposed  rela- 
tionships of  the  various  phyla,  for  the  reason  that  the  aifinities 
in  most  cases  are  still  more  or  less  debatable  and  obscure. 
But  within  any  given  phylum  the  similarities  of  structure  and 
therefore  the  suggestion  of  relationship  are  abundant  and 
convincing,  and  these  are  the  facts  with  which  evolutionists 
support  the  theory.  Comparative  anatomy,  the  great  support 
of  the  evolution  theory,  does  not  derive  its  most  convincing 


1  See  accounts  of  Darwin's  observations  on  animals  (chiefly  verte- 
brates) of  Galapagos  Islands  in  his  Origin  of  Species,  Journal  of  Re- 
searches, and  biographical  works  cited  in  chapter  on  "Zoological  Books," 


BEGINNING    WORK  IN  ZOOLOGY  347 

facts  from  comparisons  of  isolated  types  of  different  phyla. 
Who  can  point  out  to  a  young  beginner  in  zoology  convincing 
evidences  of  relationship  between  Amoeba  and  Hydra,  or  Hydra 
and  earthworm,  or  even  earthworm  and  crayfish,  not  to  men- 
tion the  great  chasm  of  structural  difference  which  separates 
the  existing  vertebrates  from  all  known  types  of  invertebrates  ? 
On  the  other  hand,  the  study  of  the  comparative  anatomy  of 
a  half-dozen  selected  arthropods  or  vertebrates  leads  one  irre- 
sistibly to  the  idea  of  relationships  and  evolution.  Clearly, 
the  logical  and  synthetic  order  is  not  the  best,  or  even  a  good 
one,  for  teaching  the  evolution  idea.  Comparison  of  a  half- 
dozen  insects,  or  decapods,  or  skeletons  of  vertebrates,  will 
convey  more  and  better  evolutionary  ideas  than  any  study  of 
a  series  of  types  of  phyla  can  possibly  do.  We  must,  therefore, 
reject  the  view  that  the  "  logical  order  "  of  study  from  Protozoa 
to  vertebrates  is  necessary,  or  even  very  useful,  for  teaching 
the  principles  of  evolution. 

A  serious  objection  to  a  protozoan  as  an  introductory  type 
upon  which  the  fundamental  principles  of  morphology  and 
physiology  are  to  be  based  arises  from  the  great 
difficulties  which  confront  the  beginner  with  the  with  Micro- 
compound  microscope.  By  the  use  of  the  micro- 
scope I  refer  not  merely  to  the  mechanical  manipulations  in 
which  very  many  pupils  do  not  soon  become  expert  enough 
for  satisfactory  work,  but  especially  to  accurate  interpretation 
—  a  far  more  difficult  thing  for  almost  all  beginners.  As  a 
direct  result  of  the  difficulties  arising  from  the  use  of  the 
microscope  at  the  outset,  it  usually  happens  that  very  few 
pupils  in  a  large  class  get  any  adequate  conception  of  the  first 
animals  studied  if  they  are  exclusively  microscopic.  The 
writer  has  seen  a  class  of  forty  pupils  reciting  about  an  Amoeba 
which,  owing  to  the  difficulties  of  the  beginning  microscopic 
work,  very  few  members  of  the  class  had  been  able  to  study 
as  long  as  thirty  minutes  in  a  preceding  two-hour  session  in 
the  laboratory.  Yet  upon  such  unsatisfactory  practical  work 
it  was  attempted  to  base  a  discussion  of  the  cell,  protoplasm. 


348  THE   TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

processes  of  nutrition,  and  similar  fundamental  principles. 
Every  college  teacher  knows  that  this  is  not  an  uncommon 
case,  for  dozens  of  pupils  come  to  college  with  certificates  of 
having  completed  high-school  courses  in  zoology  in  which  the 
Amoeba  remained  unseen  except  in  pictures  and  prepared 
slides.  The  absurdity  of  the  situation  is  evident  to  every  one 
who  values  careful  and  thorough  laboratory  study  as  a  basis  for 
all  general  considerations.  Contrast  the  results  in  training  in 
scientific  method  and  in  the  information  value  of  such  intro- 
ductory work  on  a  protozoan  with  those  from  work  on  any 
larger  animal  which  does  not  require  the  constant  use  of  the 
microscope  and  from  which  any  pupil  in  a  large  class  may, 
with  proper  directions  from  the  teacher,  get  definite  and  accu- 
rate results  upon  which  considerations  of  general  principles  are 
later  to  be  based. 

But  in  defence  of  beginning  with  the  microscope,  it  is  often 
urged  that  "  the  pupil  must  learn  to  use  the  instrument  some 
time  and  this  might  as  well  be  done  at  the  beginning."  This 
sounds  reasonable  in  theory,  but  the  writer  ventures  to  think 
that  the  elusive  Amoeba  or  an  agile  Paramoecium  are  not  the 
best  objects  for  practice.  On  the  contrary,  both  the  mechani- 
cal manipulation  and  the  more  difficult  interpretations  of  the 
micrpscopic  image  are  facilitated  by  learning  to  use  the  instru- 
ment through  occasional  practice  while  studying  the  gross 
structure  of  a  multicellular  animal  of  considerable  size.  More- 
over, as  already  suggested,  such  an  introduction  to  zoological 
principles  and  methods  obviates  the  waste  of  time,  discourage- 
ment, and  bad  training  in  methods  of  scientific  study  which 
a  large  percentage  of  pupils  inevitably  receive  when  the 
beginning  depends  entirely  upon  work  with  the  compound 
microscope. 

The  advantages  of  beginning  the  study  of  structure  with  an 
animal  about  which  the  pupil  knows  something,  or  at  least  can 
Huxley's  Ex-  ^earn  with  tne  aid  of  no  more  uncommon  appara- 
perience.  tus  tnan  tne  eves^  were  we]j  stated  by  Huxley 

many  years  ago,  after  he  had  learned  by  experience  the  great 


BEGINNING    WORK  IN  ZOOLOGY  349 

disadvantages  connected  with  beginning  zoological  study  with 
a  microscopic  animal.  In  the  first  edition  of  the  Practical 
Biology  by  Huxley  and  Martin  the  first  lesson  was  on  a  one- 
celled  animal  and  the  last  on  the  frog.  The  revised  edition 
published  many  years  later  reversed  this  order,  and  in  the 
preface  Huxley  stated  that  experience  had  taught  him  that  the 
higher  animals  are  really  less  difficult  for  beginners  in  zoology. 
Many  teachers  in  colleges  have  since  expressed  agreement 
with  this  opinion  of  Huxley,  and  there  appears  to  be  a  marked 
tendency  towards  widespread  adoption  of  this  order  of  study. 
Among  elementary  guides  for  college  work  Huxley  and  Martin's 
Practical  Biology  (revised  edition),  Sedgwick  and  Wilson's 
General  Biology  (1886,  1895),  Parker  and  Parker's  Practical 
Zoology  (1900),  Pratt's  Invertebrate  Zoology  (1901)  are  ex- 
amples of  those  which  introduce  the  zoological  study  by  means 
of  higher  animals. 

With  reference  to  elementary  zoology  in  the  secondary 
school  where  the  pupils  are  undeveloped,  the  arguments  ad- 
vanced by  Huxley  and  his  followers  are  of  greater  . 

weight  than  when  applied  to  college  work.      Pupils   withaCom- 
..-_,.       .  .          ,  plex  Animal 

encounter  few  serious  difficulties  in  an  introductory  in  High 

study  of  the  important  points  of  structure  in  a  com- 
plex animal.  The  general  relations  and  the  essential  structure 
of  organs  are  in  the  very  beginning  readily  determined  and 
comprehended  by  very  young  pupils.  The  supposed  difficul- 
ties arise  largely  when  detailed  study  is  attempted.  The  same 
arguments  hold  good  from  the  physiological  point  of  view. 
Every  pupil  knows  something  about  the  functions  of  his  own 
body,  and  it  is  easy  to  grasp  the  fundamental  principles  of 
physiology  when  directly  applied  to  organs  of  an  animal  in 
which  there  is  considerable  physiological  division  of  labor.  It 
is  evident  that  this  must  be  a  decided  gain  compared  with 
beginning  physiology  with  an  unicellular  animal  where  all 
functions  must  be  thought  of  abstractly  in  connection  with  a 
single  cell.  Beginning  with  the  physiology  of  a  multicellular 
animal,  and  considering  a  series  of  simpler  forms  which  lead 


350  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

down  the  scale  in  the  division  of  labor,  the  pupil  can  under- 
stand every  step  of  the  way,  and  in  the  end  will  have  a  clearer 
idea  of  the  functions  of  both  one-  and  many-celled  forms  in 
their  relation  to  the  great  principles  of  physiological  division 
of  labor. 

Both  the  morphological  and  the  physiological  arguments  in 
favor  of  the  multicellular  animal  are  often  based  upon  the 
Pupils'  pupils'  supposed  knowledge  of  at  least  the  human 

viriSPmgher  body  as  a  familiar  type  of  higher  animal.  Against 
Forms.  tnjs  it  has  often  been  urged  that  ordinary  pupils 

are  not  in  reality  familiar  in  a  scientific  sense  with  any  higher 
form ;  but  this  is  far  from  true  in  these  days  when  the  vast 
majority  of  children  in  the  elementary  schools  are  taught 
"human  physiology"  and  an  increasingly  large  number  are 
working  at  nature-study.  Even  some  authors  who  have  stated 
that  high-school  pupils  are  unfamiliar  with  higher  forms  have 
allowed  inconsistency  in  their  practice  to  support  the  opposing 
view,  for  in  introductory  lessons  on  Protozoa  we  find  these 
questions:  "Has  the  Amoeba  a  stomach?"  and  "Is  there 
evidence  that  Paramoecium  can  breathe  ?  "  Obviously  such 
questions  are  of  significance  only  on  the  assumption  that 
pupils  are  more  than  ordinarily  familiar  with  higher  forms,  for 
only  some  knowledge  of  the  essentials  of  the  physiological 
processes  of  respiration  would  give  the  pupil  light  on  the 
question  of  breathing  in  the  Paramcecium. 

Again,  another  author  has  defended  the  "logical  sequence" 
of  his  book  by  the  statement l  that  "  every  one  is  more  familiar 
—  by  sight,  at  least  —  with  the  frog  than  with  the  Amoeba.  The 
structure  of  the  former  resembles  that  of  the  human  body  far 
more  than  does  that  of  the  latter.  But  how  many  students 
have  even  the  most  general  knowledge  of  human  anatomy? 
They  know,  to  be  sure,  that  the  body  contains  a  heart,  lungs, 
stomach,  etc.,  but  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  would  fail  to 
locate  or,  if  shown  them,  even  to  recognize  these  organs. 


1  Preface  to  Dodge's  Practical  Biology. 


BEGINNING    WORK  IN  ZOOLOGY  351 

Again,  how  many  students,  if  called  upon  to  do  so,  could  tell 
more  about  the  frog  than  that  it  usually  lives  in  water,  is 
greenish  in  color,  has  four  legs,  a  mouth,  etc.,  and  can  jump 
and  swim  ?  Whether  or  not  the  frog  has  a  tail  is  usually  a 
question  for  discussion.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  beginning  students 
have  no  more  real  knowledge  of  the  higher  than  of  the  lower 
forms."  But  in  the  light  of  this  statement  of  -the  author's 
viewpoint  we  find  difficulty  in  understanding  the  questions  in 
the  first  lesson,  which  is  on  some  Protozoa.  Here  are  typical 
examples :  "  Can  you  find  any  organ  corresponding  to  a 
heart?  Stomach?  Lungs  or  gills?  Brain?  Are  nerves  visible? 
How  do  they  digest  their  food  ?  Breathe  ?  "  We  may  comment 
by  asking,  How  can  any  of  the  above  questions  be  of  signifi- 
cance to  a  beginner  if  pupils  "  fail  to  locate,  or,  if  shown  them, 
to  recognize  these  organs  "  in  a  frog  or  other  higher  form  ? 
What  can  any  such  questions  mean  to  one  who  has  "no  real 
knowledge  of  higher  forms  "  ?  Obviously  such  inconsistency 
in  practice  offers  no  support  for  the  contention  that  young 
pupils  are  unfamiliar  with  the  higher  animals. 

The  conclusion  of  our  inquiry  must  be  that  so  far  as  the 
work  of  secondary  schools  is  concerned  there  is  very  little  in 
favor  of  introducing  the  course  in  elementary 
zoology  by  the  study  of  a  unicellular  animal,  while 
there  is  much  in  favor  of  beginning  with  the  for  Beginners. 
study  of  the  multicellular  form.  The  simplest  animals  appear  to 
be,  after  all,  both  morphologically  and  physiologically  the  most 
complex  from  the  young  beginner's  standpoint.  More  than 
this,  almost  everything  which  is  supposed  to  argue  for  a  logical 
and  synthetical  order  of  study  depends  upon  generalizations 
which  are  not  appreciated  by  the  average  high-school  pupil. 

The  experience  of  large  numbers  of  teachers  seems  to  sup- 
port strongly  such  conclusions,  and  recent  books  for  secondary 
schools  are  decidedly  in  favor  of  this  position.  Recent  Text- 
Thus  Kingsley's  Comparative  Zoology,  Harvey's  books' 
Introdiiction  to  Zoology,  French's  Animal  Activities  and  Col- 
ton's  new  Zoology  all  begin  with  the  study  of  arthropods  or 


352  THE   TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

vertebrates.  The  only  exceptions  since  the  publication  of 
Needham's  Elements  of  Zoology  in  1895  is  that  of  the  labora- 
tory manual  Studies  of  Animal  Life  by  Walter,  Whitney,  and 
Lucas  (1900)  and  that  by  Weed  and  Grossman  (1902)  both  of 
which  follow  the  so-called  logical  series  from  Amoeba  to 
mammals. 

4.   Introduction  to  Zoological  Principles. 

The  final  proposition  which  I  wish  to  discuss  with  reference 
to  the  beginning  work  is  that  the  principles  of  all  the  various 
Huxley's  phases  of  zoology  should  be  introduced  early  in 
Method.  tne  course  with  the  study  of  some  animal  type 

from  the  point  of  view  of  general  zoology.  This  is  the  method 
which  Huxley  so .  successfully  employed  in  his  now  classical 
The  Crayfish  as  an  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Zoology  (1879), 
in  the  preface  of  which  occurs  this  statement  of  the  aim  of  the 
book :  — 

"  I  have  desired,  in  fact,  to  show  how  the  careful  study  of  one  of 
the  commonest  and  most  insignificant  of  animals,  leads  us,  step  by 
step,  from  every-day  knowledge  to  the  widest  generalizations  and 
the  most  difficult  problems  of  zoology ;  and,  indeed,  of  biological 
science  in  general." 

The  success  of  this  method  of  Huxley  is  sufficient  defence 
of  its  value.  Sedgwick  and  Wilson  in  their  General  Biology 

have  followed  the  same  plan  applied  to  the  earth- 
Other  Appli-  .          .       .  v ...      .     .        .      .   , 

cations  of  the    worm  as  an  introduction  to  zoological  principles 

and  methods  of  study;  and  recently  T.  Jeffrey 
Parker  and  W.  N.  Parker,  pupils  of  Huxley,  have  done  the 
same  in  their  Elementary  Course  of  Practical  Zoology,  using 
the  frog  as  their  introductory  type.  These  books  have  been 
favorably  received  in  college  work;  but  they  are  far  too 
advanced  and  technical  for  elementary  pupils  in  a  secondary 
school. 

Directly  applying  the  method  of  Huxley,1  the  central  idea  of 

1  I  follow  here  almost  the  exact  words  which  I  used  in  explaining  the 
point  of  view  of  the  Outline  of  the  Course  in  Zoology  in  Horace  Mann 


BEGINNING    WORK  IN  ZOOLOGY  353 

the  course  in  elementary  zoology  which  is  outlined  in  this 
book  (Chapter  VIII.),  is  that  of  an  introductory  study  of  a 
complex  animal  examined  from  the  several  viewpoints  of 
zoology.  Such  a  study  includes  important  facts  of  anatomy, 
histology,  embryology,  classification  in  connection  with  the 
near  allies  of  the  introductory  type,  distribution,  general 
fundamental  principles  of  physiology  and  ecology  touching 
upon  habits  of  life  and  life-history.  It  may  be  necessary  to 
remind  the  reader  that  this  is  not  to  be  misunderstood  as 
meaning  that  any  one  of  these  phases  of  study  should  go  far 
into  details.  The  question,  What  is  essential  for  liberal 
education?  should  be  strictly  applied  in  eliminating  all  that 
has  no  good  reason  for  inclusion  in  the  course.  The  writer's 
interpretation  of  what  may  be  considered  valuable  in  this 
connection  will  be  best  represented  by  the  detailed  outline  of 
such  an  introductory  study  of  one  animal  which  is  given  in 
Chapter  VIII. 

Such  introductory  study  as  has  been  suggested  can  be 
completed  within  the  first  five  or  six  weeks  of  a  half-year 
course,  leaving  ten  or  eleven  weeks  in  which  to  Relation  of 
examine  types  of  various  groups  of  the  animal 
kingdom.  This  will  be  criticised  on  the  ground 
that  it  gives  too  much  attention  to  a  single  animal ;  but  it 
will  appear  in  the  outline  in  Chapter  VIII.  that  most  of  this 
time  is  devoted  to  zoological  principles  capable  of  wide  ap- 
plication, and  which  are  illustrated  by  the  careful  study  of 
a  single  animal.  After  pupils  once  grasp  these  principles, 
application  to  any  animals  which  are  studied  later  is  easily 
and  quickly  made.  In  other  words,  this  method  of  introduc- 
ing the  study  is  designed  to  give  pupils  general  ideas  of  the 
structure  and  activities  of  one  animal  which  will  aid  in  appre- 
ciating and  interpreting  any  other  animal.  It  is  also  intended 
to  give  intensive  study  of  the  fundamental  principles  of  anat- 
omy and  physiology,  and  training  in  the  methods  of  biological 

High  School,  in  Teachers  College  Record,  Vol.  II.  January,  1901. 
Pp.  14,  15. 

23 


354  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

study,  and  thus  lay  a  foundation  for  later  study  of  other  animals 
representing  important  groups.  In  short,  the  general  aim  is 
to  lay  a  foundation  which  will  make  later  study  of  animals, 
from  whatever  standpoint,  more  interesting  and  more  intel- 
ligible, because  there  is  included  in  the  foundation  work  those 
great  principles  of  animal  structure  and  function  which  are  of 
wide  interest  and  application. 

The   writer  is  convinced   that   the  broad  view  of  a  single 
animal  and  of  some  of  the  principles  of  zoology,  gained  from 

the  introductory  study  along  the  lines  suggested 
Influence  _  ,  j  •  n 

on  Viewpoint    above,  exerts  a  marked  influence  on  all  subsequent 

study  of  animals.  Pupils  with  such  preliminary 
training  may  be  required  later  to  study  some  animals  from  a 
limited  point  of  view,  for  example,  ecology  or  morphology, 
but  their  general  ideas  of  one  animal  from  the  various  points 
of  view  lead  them  to  think  of  all  animals  as  presenting  illus- 
trations of  the  various  aspects  of  zoology.  They  will  have 
that  wide  outlook  upon  animal  life  which  has  been  called 
"  zoological  perspective."  Experience  has  demonstrated  that 
interest  is  not  lost  by  such  extended  introductory  work.  On 
the  contrary,  the  pupils,  as  a  rule,  are  eager  to  study  every 
animal  brought  into  the  course  as  thoroughly  as  the  introduc- 
tory type  was  studied  —  that  is,  from  the  various  aspects  of 
zoology.  Although  time  will  obviously  not  allow  such  exten- 
sive study  of  more  than  one  form,  there  is  certainly  great 
value  in  such  an  attitude  of  mind  with  its  broad  outlook  and 
interest  in  the  various  phases  of  animal  life. 

In  conclusion,  it  is  claimed  that  upon  a  broad  introductory 
study  of  one  multicellular  animal  it  is  possible  to  base  a  course 

which  combines  the  most  valuable  features  of  the 
Conclusion.  ,  .  , 

various    courses    usually    presented    in    secondary 

schools,  and  that  it  is  possible  at  the  same  time  to  give  as 
good  training  in  scientific  observing  and  thinking  as  can  be 
done  with  any  other  plan.  Moreover,  such  a  course  gives 
a  view  of  animals  and  animal  life  which  is  broader  and  more 
valuable  from  the  standpoint  of  liberal  education  than  that 


BEGINNING    WORK  IN  ZOOLOGY  355 

given  by  the  ordinary  courses  which  are  limited  to  the  view- 
points of  either  natural  history  or  morphology,  for  it  includes 
the  fundamental  principles  of  physiology  in  the  natural  re- 
lations with  morphology  and  ecology,  the  importance  of  which 
relation  has  been  discussed  elsewhere. 

It  is  not  to  be  claimed  that  pupils  who  follow  such  a  course 
will  know  much  about  the  details  of  comparative  anatomy  in 

a  series  of  animals,  or  understand  the  intricacies 

r     ,       .   ,  General  Ideas, 

of  physiological  processes,  or  that  they  store  up  a  not  the 

mass  of  facts  from  natural  history ;  but  from  the 
standpoint  of  liberal  secondary  education  stores  of  zoological 
facts  are  not  needed  so  much  as  broad  general  ideas,  and  an 
acquaintance  with  and  interest  in  animals  and  their  life. 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE  SELECTION  OF  ANIMAL  TYPES  FOR  A  LABORA- 
TORY COURSE  IN  ZOOLOGY 

THERE  seems  to  be  no  question  that  an  elementary  course  in 
zoology  in  a  secondary  school  should  be  based  upon  and  con- 
Value  of  s*st  largety  °f  tne  study  of  a  series  of  types  or 
Types-  examples  representing  the  most  important  groups 

of  animals.1  No  other  plan  is  adaptable  to  the  modern  labora- 
tory method  of  teaching  the  principles  of  the  science ;  and 
concentration  of  attention  upon  a  limited  number  of  forms  un- 
doubtedly results  in  the  most  satisfactory  training  in  the -method 
of  scientific  study.  Even  from  the  standpoint  of  the  acquisi- 
tion of  information  the  type  method  has  great  advantages  over 
the  alternative  plan  of  dealing  in  generalized  comparative  terms 
with  characteristics  of  a  group  of  animals  with  most  of  which 
the  students  must  be  entirely  unfamiliar. 

i.   Types  for  the  Introductory  Work. 

The  problems  relating  to  the  selection  of  types  upon  which 
to  base  the  course  in  zoology  are  closely  involved  with  ques- 
tions concerning  the  order  in  which  the  examples  are  to  be 
presented ;  hence  it  will  be  most  convenient  to  give  some  at- 
tention first  to  the  order  of  study. 

In  recent  years  there  has  been  among  teachers  of  zoology 

much  discussion  concerning  the  order  of  study  of  the  animal 

types  representing  the  great    phyla.     It  was    but 

Animal  natural  that  there  should  have  been  until  recently 

Phyla 

an  almost  universal  tendency  to  follow  the  order 

—  Protozoa,  Ccelenterata,  worms,  Arthropoda,  Molluska,  Ver- 
tebrata,  for  that  is  the  one  given  in  the  modern  systematic 

1  Special  references  :  Huxley,  essay  On  the  Study  of  Biology,  Science 
and  Education  Essays,  p.  285  ;  Harvey,  High  School  Bulletin,  No.  17,  Uni- 


ANIMAL    TYPES  FOR  LABORATORY         357 

treatises  on  zoology.  But  experience  in  teaching  has  called 
attention  to  various  pedagogical  and  practical  considerations 
which  are  now  leading  to  wide  departure  from  the  systematic 
order  from  simplest  to  most  complex.  Accepting  the  conclu- 
sion in  the  preceding  chapter  that  multicellular  animals  have 
advantages  as  types  for  introductory  study,  it  remains  to  select 
the  multicellular  types  which  will  best  serve  for  the  introduc- 
tion to  the  general  principles  of  the  various  phases  of  zoology 
according  to  the  method  of  Huxley,  as  advocated  in  the  last 
section  of  the  preceding  chapter. 

It  is  not  easy  to  decide  between  representatives  of  a  half- 
dozen  metazoan  phyla.     If  we  reject  the  protozoan  as  an  in- 
troductory type,  there  is  no  good  zoological  reason 
.....  ,         Selection  of 

for  passing  to  the  opposite  extreme  to  a  complex   Introductory 

vertebrate  and  then  passing  backward  along  the 
series  followed  by  the  zoological  treatises.  A  student  will  ap- 
preciate the  relative  complexity,  the  similarities  and  differences 
of  an  earthworm,  a  crayfish,  or  a  frog  without  regard  to  the 
order  of  first  study.  Moreover,  the  order  of  study  has  no 
necessary  significance  in  relation  to  developing  ideas  of  the 
evolution  of  the  metazoan  phyla  for  the  reason  that  to  a  begin- 
ning student  the  differences  are  so  great  that  the  phyla  seem 
to  stand  isolated.  Even  granting  that  affinities  between  phyla 
can  be  demonstrated  to  the  young  beginner,  then  the  worm, 
the  arthropod,  the  mollusk,  and  the  vertebrate  are  to  be  treated 
as  diverging  branches  of  the  same  tree,  not  as  steps  in  a 
ladder ;  and  until  all  four  types  are  known,  relationships  cannot 
be  clearly  understood.  What  matters,  then,  whether  the  order 
of  study  be  worm,  arthropod,  vertebrate ;  or  vertebrate,  arth- 
ropod, worm  ;  or  even  arthropod,  worm,  vertebrate  ?  Clearly 
it  is  not  possible  upon  the  basis  of  zoological  facts  alone  to 
reach  any  decision  as  to  the  order  of  study  of  metazoan 
animals.  Practical  and  pedagogical  rather  than  zoological 
considerations  must  influence  the  selection  of  an  introductory 


versity  of  State  of  New  York ;  Parker  and  Haswell,  Text-book  of  Zoology, 
Preface  to  Vol.  I. 


358  THE   TEACHING  OF  ZOOLOGY 

type,  and  from  this  point  of  view  we  shall  examine  several 
animals  which  have  claims  to  favor. 

The  Crayfish.  —  In  the  outline  of  a  course  in  zoology  which 
is  presented  in  the  following  chapter  the  crayfish  is  treated  as 
an  introductory  type.  This  selection  was  made  after  a  con- 
sideration of  the  merits  of  six  animals, — namely,  mammal, 
frog,  fish,  crayfish,  grasshopper,  and  earthworm,  — which  appear 
available  and  desirable  for  introducing  a  course  which  is  to 
include  the  general  principles  of  zoology.  After  starting  sec- 
ondary-school classes  with  four  of  these  forms,  the  writer  has 
come  to  believe  that  the  crayfish  has  some  decided  advantages 
as  a  type  with  which  to  begin  the  practical  study  of  animals 
and  upon  which  to  base  many  important  general  principles. 

First,  beginning  pupils  have  less  aversion  to  handling  the 
crayfish  than  in  the  case  of  any  of  the  other  forms,  except 
its  Favor-  *ne  msect*  Teachers  will  recognize  that  this  is  an 
able  Points,  important  point,  for  the  first  impressions  often  in- 
fluence the  pupil's  attitude  toward  a  subject.  Second,  the 
external  structure  of  the  crayfish  and  its  allies  is  very  favor- 
able for  teaching  principles  of  homology,  classification,  and 
adaptation  to  functions.  In  these  respects  it  is  not  possible 
to  begin  with  a  better  animal.  There  is  still  another  great 
advantage  in  that  the  crayfish  can  be  readily  obtained  in 
most  places  outside  of  New  England,  and  is  found  in  the 
markets  of  the  cities.  Moreover,  the  lobster  may  be  substi- 
tuted without  modification  of  the  outline.  Finally,  with  regard 
to  internal  structure,  the  crayfish  is  easier  to  dissect  than  any 
of  the  other  forms  mentioned  above,  and  the  general  plan  of 
the  organs  is  easily  understood  even  by  very  young  pupils. 
The  internal  organs  are  comparatively  simple,  and  yet  there 
is  well-developed  physiological  division  of  labor.  On  this 
point  the  complexity  of  the  crustacean  not  being  so  great 
as  in  the  case  of  any  vertebrate,  it  is  easier  for  the  pupil 
to  gain  a  clear  idea  of  the  essential  nature  of  the  workings 
of  organs  as  related  to  the  life  of  the  body  as  a  whole  ; 
and  hence  the  crayfish  is  especially  favorable  as  affording 


ANIMAL    TYPES  FOR  LABORATORY        359 

a  basis  for  introduction  to  the  essential  principles  of  animal 
physiology. 

The  Mammal.  —  There  is  a  small  minority  of  teachers  who 
advocate  some   common  mammal  —  such  as  rat,   similar  to 
rabbit,  or  cat  —  as   an  introductory  type,   for  the    Human  Body, 
reason  that  in  structure  and  function  it  so  closely  resembles 
the  human  body.     But  there  are  weighty  reasons  against  this. 

So  far  as  some  classes  of  boys  are  concerned,  the  pupils 
have  little  or  no  aversion  to  dissection  of  mammals ;  but  the 

teaching  of  zoology  is  not  limited  to  the  teaching 

r  u  u      4.  i        i  •    Ji  c  Pupils'  Aver- 

of  boys  who  take   kindly  to  dissections  of  mam-    sion  to  Dis- 
mals, and  the  natural  repulsion  of  the  majority  of 
beginning  students  makes  it  imperative  that  the  dissection  of 
a  mammal  be  omitted  in  spite  of  its  claims  to  favor  because 
of  its  similarity  to  the  human  body.     There  are  many  profes- 
sional zoologists  who  will  sympathize  with  the  position   here 
taken,   because    in    their   own    experience    they    have    found 
mammalian  dissection  a  disagreeable  task. 

Aside  from  the  foregoing  objections  to  a  study  of  a  mammal 
in  the  beginning  work  of  the  laboratory,  the  great  complexity 
of  its  anatomy  and  correspondingly  extreme  phys-    complexity 
iological   division    of  labor   are   certainly  serious   and^unc?6 
reasons  which  should    militate    against    beginning  tions' 
the  study  of  zoology  with    such  a   difficult    type.     Certainly 
from  such  an  introduction  the  average  beginner  will  not  get  a 
clear  conception  of  the  essential  physiological  processes. 

With  regard  to  the  argument  that  the  mammal  admits  of 
direct  comparisons  with  the  human  body,  it  may  be  said  that 
many  teachers  find  a  great  gain  in  beginning  study 
with  some  animal  not  very  like  the  human  body,   with  Human 
and  this  for  the  reason  that  most  pupils  have  de- 
rived many  great   misconceptions  from  the   so-called    "  phys- 
iology "  taught  in  the   grammar  school.     It  is  far  better   to 
take  a  fresh  start  with  such  an  animal  as  the  crayfish  which 
does  not  recall  anything  except  essential  general  facts  about 
the  human  body.     For  example,  the  respiration  of  the  cray- 


360  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

fish  will  recall  only  the  essentials  of  that  process  in  the  human 
body,  and  the  relatively  less  important  details  of  the  mechan- 
ism of  respiration  being  so  dissimilar  will  not  invite  com- 
parisons. Hence  the  attention  will  be  concentrated  upon 
essential  facts. 

The  Frog.  — The  objections  to  the  mammals  do  not  in  the 
experience  of  many  teachers  apply  to  the  frog,  which  resem- 
Frogmore  ^es  tne  mammalian  body  closely  enough  for  the 
San°Mam-  illustration  of  the  general  principles  of  structure 
mal<  and  function  which  should  be  involved  in  high- 

school  work.  Beginning  pupils  under  the  control  of  a  tactful 
teacher  will  not  be  averse  to  a  study  of  the  frog,  provided  that 
the  material  is  in  good  condition.  Availability  of  material, 
or  the  possibility  of  closer  comparisons  with  the  human  body, 
may  lead  many  teachers  to  prefer  the  frog  to  the  crayfish  as 
an  introductory  type,  and  provision  has  been  made  for  this 
in  the  outline  following  this  chapter.  While  I  prefer  the 
crayfish  for  the  beginning  study,  and  the  frog  for  the  last 
laboratory  work  of  the  course,  experience  has  convinced  me 
that  quite  as  good  general  results  have  been  obtained  in 
classes  which  began  with  the  frog.  In  case  it  is  decided 
not  to  study  the  internal  structure  of  more  than  one  animal, 
then  it  is  beyond  question  that  the  frog  is  the  most  favorable 
type. 

The  Earthworm.  —  This  animal  has  been  made  the  basis 
of  the  introduction  to  zoology  in  Sedgwick  and  Wilson's 
Wot  a  Favor-  General  Biology,  and  well  serves  this  purpose  in 
able  Type.  college  work.  But  experience  has  taught  that  it 
is  not  well  adapted  to  high-school  zoology.  Beginners  are 
not  uncommonly  averse  to  working  with  a  "  worm,"  and  it  is 
not  easy  to  dissect  so  as  to  bring  out  clearly  the  chief  organs. 
Except  in  favorable  localities,  there  is  difficulty  in  getting 
specimens  large  enough  for  satisfactory  dissection,  and  unlike 
the  frog  and  crayfish  it  is  not  to  be  obtained  from  provision 
markets.  All  these  are  objections  to  its  selection  for  intro- 
ductory work  upon  which  a  course  is  to  be  based,  and  in  the 


ANIMAL    TYPES  FOR  LABORATORY        361 

absence  of  any  important  points  of  merit  we  must  reject  the 
earthworm  as  not  well  adapted  to  our  purposes  in  the  begin- 
ning work  in  zoology. 

The  Insect.  —  For  introductory  work  which  is  to  illustrate 
the  general  principles  of  zoology  the  insects  are  unsatisfactory 
for  the  reason  that  they  are  extremely  specialized.  Also,  their 
small  size  makes  a  satisfactory  study  of  the  internal  anatomy 
impossible  for  young  beginners. 

But    the  insects   are    especially  valuable    for   introductory 
studies  in  natural  history,  which,  as  suggested  in  the  chapter  on 
the  "Beginning  Work,"  should  at  times  precede 
the  study  of  general  principles  of  zoology.    When-    insects  in 
ever  it  is  desirable  to  begin  the  high-school  zoology 
with   natural   history  of  some   common  animals,   the   wealth 
and  variety  of  insect    life    at    the    beginning   of  the   school 
year   in    September    makes    these    animals    the    most    desir- 
able for  such  study.-    Two  or  three  weeks  of  natural  history, 
including   field    work,  will    prepare    for   the    introduction    to 
the  general  principles   of  zoology  as  illustrated  by  a  careful 
study  of  some  more  favorable  type,  such  as  the  crayfish  (or 
frog). 

It  is  clear  from  the  foregoing  considerations  that  the  cray- 
fish (or  as  a  second  choice  the  frog)   appears  best  adapted  to 
purposes  of  beginning  work  in  the   principles  of 
zoology,  as  outlined  in  preceding  chapters.     The   Crayfish  or 
one  feature   of  the   outline    (Chapter    VIII.)    for  introductory 


introductory  work  which  I  wish  to  emphasize  as 
important  is  that  whatever  multicellular  animal  be  chosen  as 
the  first  type  it  should  be  studied  in  such  a  way  as  to  make 
the  work  an  introduction  both  to  the  general  methods  of 
zoological  study  and  to  the  essential  principles  of  animal 
structure,  function,  and  relations.  It  is  admitted  that  by 
efficient  teachers  such  results  might  be  obtained  from  the 
study  of  any  one  of  many  common  animals  ;  but,  as  has  been 
indicated  above,  certain  types  are  especially  favorable  for  the 
beginning  work  of  secondary-  school  classes.  . 


362  THE   TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

We  must  now  make  a  survey  of  the  various  phyla  in  order 
Supplemental  to  se^ect  representatives  which  are  to  be  studied 
Types.  after  the  introductory  type,  thus  broadening  the 

pupils'  acquaintance  with  animals  and  extending  the  applica- 
tion of  principles  learned  from  the  first  animals  studied. 

2.    Other  Animals  available  for  Laboratory  Study. 

Improved  methods  for  preservation  of  animals  for  study  in 
the  laboratory  and  the  establishment  of  numerous  dealers  in 
UseofPre-  zoological  materials  have  rendered  available  for 
Hgn!luiimais  class  study  many  animals  which  are  obtainable 
Loc^Living  onty  m  lifted  localities.  This  method  of  obtain- 
Foras.  mg  material  has  great  advantages  from  the  stand- 

point of  college  work  in  morphology,  but  it  has  great  dangers 
for  secondary  schools.  In  the  first  place,  material  from  dealers 
is  usually  preserved  and  therefore  of  value  only  for  morpho- 
logical work;  and,  as  we  have  seen,  such  special  one-sided 
study  is  not  to  be  recommended  for  the  secondary  school. 
A  second  danger  arises  from  the  fact  that  the  ease  of  purchas- 
ing materials  tends  towards  the  introduction  of  numerous 
foreign  forms  to  the  exclusion  of  common  local  types  with 
which  the  secondary-school  course  should  be  primarily  con- 
cerned. To  a  certain  extent  purchase  of  materials  is  neces- 
sary, for  it  is  obviously  impossible  that  the  teacher  should 
even  supervise  the  collection  of  all  materials  required  for  a 
high  school  in  a  great  city ;  and  it  is  not  against  such  use 
of  supply  stations  that  a  protest  is  here  made,  but  rather 
against  the  purchasing  of  preserved  material  when  living  and 
fresh  specimens  of  common  forms  are  locally  obtainable. 
Particularly  is  this  directed  against  excessive  use  of  preserved 
marine  materials,  the  trade  in  which  has  become  enormous, 
largely  because  of  the  patronage  of  high  schools.  Marine 
fishes  in  formaldehyde  have  been  shipped  to  cities  on  the 
lakes  and  rivers  where  minnows,  perch,  and  other  fishes  are 
abundant.  The  sandworm  Nereis  is  commonly  substituted 
for  the  ubiquitous  earthworm,  marine  clams  for  the  common 


ANIMAL    TYPES  FOR  LABORATORY         363 

fresh-water  mussels,  marine  gastropods  for  pond-snails  and 
land-snails,  hydroids  and  sea-anemone  for  Hydra ;  and  in 
addition  starfishes,  sea-urchins,  sea- cucumbers,  squids,  and 
other  marine  forms  are  given  time  which  would  be  more 
profitably  spent  on  common  land  and  fresh-water  animals. 
The  excessive  use  of  marine  materials  tends  to  give  pupils 
the  impression  that  common  animals  are  not  worthy  of 
zoological  study ;  and  such  a  result  is  greatly  to  be  deplored. 
Certainly  the  best  elementary  course  in  zoology  is  that  which 
makes  the  most  efficient  use  of  and  arouses  interest  in  com- 
mon animals;  and  the  use  of  foreign  animal  forms  in  an 
elementary  course  in  a  high  school  should  be  largely  limited 
to  that  of  exhibition  merely  for  the  sake  of  more  extended 
acquaintance  with  animals.  One  can  scarcely  imagine  any 
locality  where  a  high  school  is  located  which  is  so  zoologi- 
cally impoverished  that  abundant  material  for  class  study 
throughout  a  first  course  is  not  obtainable.  It  is  with  the 
selection  of  the  common  materials  for  a  course  in  zoology 
that  we  are  here  concerned,  and  we  may  now  make  a  gen- 
eral survey  of  the  great  groups  in  search  of  familiar  types 
which  will  illustrate  the  fundamental  principles  of  the  science 
of  zoology. 

Protozoa.  —  The  Amoeba l  and  Paramoecium  are  beyond 
question  the  most  important  of  the  unicellular  animals  which 
are  easily  obtained  in  most  localities.  Upon  these  the  labora- 
tory work  concerning  protozoans  should  be  based,  and  other 
available  forms  may  be  exhibited  for  the  purpose  of  giving  pupils 
a  wider  acquaintance  with  the  world  of  microscopic  animal  life. 

Ccelenterates.  —  If  only  one  ccelenterate  can  be  studied  in 
the  laboratory,  Hydra  should  be  selected  as  the  type  of  the 
group.      The    sea-anemone    is    often    substituted, 
even  in  schools  so  far  from  the  sea-shore  that  pre- 
served  specimens  must    be   used  exclusively;    but   the  sea- 


1  The  chapter  on  "  Materials  and  Methods  "  contains  notes  on  col- 
lecting and  keeping  animals  mentioned  in  this  chapter  as  types  desirable 
for  laboratory  study. 


364  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

anemone  does  not  illustrate  the  fundamental  plan  of  the 
ccelenterate  body  as  well  as  does  the  simple  Hydra.  The 
teacher  who  carefully  examines  the  chapter  in  Parker's  Ele- 
mentary Biology  will  be  convinced  that  this  animal  is  an 
excellent  type  of  a  ccelenterate,  and  that  it  also  illustrates 
many  important  principles  of  animal  morphology  and  physi- 
ology. The  fact  that  it  is  common  in  fresh  water  and  may 
be  studied  living  is  a  great  advantage,  for  as  a  living  animal  it 
always  arouses  interest  and  enthusiasm  in  high-school  students. 
An  objection  often  urged  is  that  it  is  not  always  easily  obtain- 
able when  wanted  for  class  study,  but  this  difficulty  may  usu- 
ally be  overcome  by  attention  to  directions  for  collecting 
and  keeping  the  animals  (see  chapter  on  "  Materials  and 
Methods  ")  ;  at  any  rate,  when  preserved  and  permanently 
mounted  entire  and  in  sections  they  are  superior  to  preserved 
sea-anemones.  Another  objection  is  that  the  Hydra  is  very 
small ;  but  this  is  not  serious,  for  high  powers  of  the  micro- 
scope are  not  necessary. 

Among  marine  coelenterates  with  which  the  pupils  should 
have  some  acquaintance,  the  following  are  certainly  the  most 
Marine  important :  sea-anemone,  coral  polyp,  hydroid 

Forms.  colonies,  hydromedusa,  a  scyphomedusa,  and  a 

ctenophore.  Even  for  schools  near  the  sea-shore  most  of 
these  are  not  obtainable  living  during  the  regular  school-year, 
and  materials  in  formaldehyde  must  be  used  for  demonstra- 
tions of  their  structure  sufficient  to  give  pupils  acquaintance 
with  these  animals. 

"  Worms"  — Adequate  representation  of  this  heterogeneous 
assemblage  would  require  at  least  a  half-dozen  types,  but  ex- 
Some  Com-  amples  of  the  three  or  four  most  common  phyla 
mon  Forms.  are  sufficient  for  the  most  extensive  high-school 
course.  The  common  earthworm  will  always  be  selected  as  a 
type  of  segmented  worms,  and  acquaintance  should  be  made 
also  with  the  leech  and  perhaps  the  sand  worm  (Nereis). 
Among  the  flat  worms,  the  common  planarians  found  under 
stones  in  brooks  are  important.  The  tape-worm  and  the 


ANIMAL    TYPES  FOR  LABORATORY        365 

liver-fluke,  which  well  illustrate  the  complex  life-histories  of 
parasitic  flat  worms,  are  unfortunately  rarely  available  in  high 
schools,  even  for  demonstrations.  As  examples  of  the  round 
worms,  the  common  vinegar  eel  is  always  obtainable  in  living 
condition,  and  parasitic  species  are  usually  to  be  found  in  lungs 
and  bladder  of  frogs. 

Echinoderms.  —  There  has  long  been  a  widespread  delusion 
that  a  proper  course  in  elementary  zoology  in  a  secondary 

school  should  include  a  detailed  study  of  at  least 

Their  Place 
a  starfish  as  an    example    of  echmoderms.     But  in  High-school 

aside  from  giving  a  general  acquaintance  with  these 
animals,  for  which  very  brief  study  is  sufficient,  the  echino- 
derms  must  be  regarded  as  the  least  important  animals  from 
the  standpoint  of  elementary  zoology  which  is  to  present  the 
most  essential  facts  and  principles  of  the  science.1  In  sup- 
port of  this  statement  we  may  call  attention  to  the  fact  that 
it  is  not  possible  in  elementary  work  to  study  them  compar- 
atively along  the  lines  usually  followed  in  the  case  of  animals 
of  many  other  phyla.  Aside  from  the  apparent  radiality,  there 
are  only  a  few  minor  points  in  which  a  high-school  pupil  can 
make  comparisons  between  the  starfish  and  sea-urchin,  and  a 
profitable  comparison  between  these  animals  and  a  holothur- 
ian  cannot  be  made  on  the  basis  of  the  pupil's  own  observa- 
tions. It  is  clear  that  as  a  training  in  general  morphological 
principles,  laboratory  study  of  echinoderms  must  be  distinc- 
tively inferior  to  such  study  as  that  of  representatives  of 
arthropods  and  vertebrates  in  which  many  comparisons  lead- 
ing to  general  principles  are  easily  made  out  by  the  pupils. 
It  follows  that  studies  of  the  external  structure  of  echinoderms 
becomes  largely  a  study  of  details  for  their  own  sake.  The 
writer  has  seen  a  large  class  in  a  high  school  in  a  great  city 

1  This  is  the  position  of  most  teachers  in  colleges,  in  which  echino- 
derms are  rarely  included  in  a  beginning  course  in  general  zoology.  An 
echinoderm  type  is  not  planned  for  in  any  of  the  following  well-known 
introductory  courses  for  colleges  :  Marshall  and  Hurst's  Practical  Zool- 
ogy, Parker  and  Parker's  Practical  Zoology,  and  Huxley  and  Martin's 
Practical  Biology. 


366  THE   TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

spend  a  two-hour  period  in  examining  and  drawing  with  great 
care  the  aboral  surfaces  of  dried  and  distorted  specimens  of  star- 
fish. The  only  points  of  the  exercise  which  were  really  of  general 
importance  should  have  been  seen  in  two  minutes.  Such  de- 
tailed anatomical  study  of  echinoderms  must  be  regarded  as 
relatively  unimportant  in  high-school  work,  and  only  a  very 
superficial  study  of  representative  echinoderms  is  justifiable  in 
a  secondary  school  when  an  abundance  of  common  animals  of 
other  groups  is  at  hand  to  illustrate  better  the  great  principles 
of  zoology. 

In  accordance  with  the  views  stated  above,  the  brief  outline 
on  page  386  is  designed  (i)  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that 
the  echinoderms  are  animals;  (2)  to  give  ac- 
WorkSon  quaintance  with  the  general  form,  habitat,  and  chief 
types ;  and  (3)  to  give  them  place  in  the  general 
scheme  of  animal  classification.  The  examination  of  structural 
features  is  designed  to  be  limited  to  the  broad  characteristics 
underlying  the  classification  within  the  group.  Of  course,  the 
possible  relations  of  this  to  other  phyla  must  remain  entirely  in 
the  dark  in  high-school  work,  for  the  embryological  evidence  of 
such  affinities  is  certainly  out  of  place  in  an  elementary  course. 

Mollusks.  —  The  snails  and  clam  are  for  the  high-school 
work  the  most  useful  representatives  of  this  phylum.  Pond- 
Common  snails  of  several  genera  and  land-snails  of  the 
Gastropods.  genus  Helix  are  easily  obtained  in  most  localities. 
These  native  species  should  not  be  neglected.  In  addition, 
the  European  edible  snail  (Helix  pomatia)  is  valuable  because 
of  its  large  size.  Then  there  are  the  common  garden-slugs  of 
the  genus  Lirnax.  These  types  will  be  sufficient  for  the  study 
of  gastropods ;  and  there  is  no  excuse  for  purchasing  marine 
gastropods,  such  as  the  whelks,  preserved  in  formalin. 

As  representatives  of  the  lamellibranchs,  the  river  mussels 
of  the  genera  Unio  and  Anodonta  are  obtainable  from  almost 

any  stream  in  the  Mississippi  system,  and  are  very 

Bivalves.  '    .  .      3 

common  elsewhere.    The  common  marine  bivalves, 

such  as  the  soft-shelled  clam  (Mya),  the  quahog  (Venus),  and 


ANIMAL    TYPES  FOR  LABORATORY        367 

the  oyster,  are  easily  obtainable  in  the  sea-coast  cities,  and 
may  be  substituted  for  the  fresh-water  forms.  The  little 
fresh-water  Cyclas  is  another  common  bivalve  of  interest  to 
pupils  who  are  getting  acquainted  with  local  forms. 

Finally,  with  regard  to  the  cephalopods,  it  is  not  possible 
in  secondary-school  work  to  demonstrate  clearly  the  mollus- 
can  characteristics  of  these  extremely  specialized  Place0f 
forms.  Practically  the  pupil  must  accept  these  Cephalopods. 
animals  as  mollusks  on  the  authority  of  books  and  the  teacher. 
I  doubt  whether  in  a  secondary  school  these  forms  deserve 
more  attention  than  is  necessary  in  order  that  the  pupils  may 
gain  an  acquaintance  with  them.  Certainly  an  attempt  at  the 
dissection  of  the  squid,  as  suggested  in  certain  elementary 
laboratory  guides,  is  difficult  to  justify.  Especially  is  it 
necessary  to  deprecate  the  presentation  of  theoretical  modi- 
fications of  other  mollusks  which  might  be  supposed  to  con- 
vert them  into  the  cephalopod  plan  of  structure.  As  an 
example,  one  outline  of  a  high-school  course  advises  :  "  One 
day's  morphological  study  of  the  squid,  to  show  what  can  be 
done  with  the  molluscan  plan  if  the  shell  is  discarded,  supple- 
ments the  clam  study."  Such  speculation  is  more  than  mis- 
leading for  beginners  in  zoology;  and  especially  so  in  this 
case,  for  the  comparison  suggests  a  close  relationship  and 
definite  line  of  derivation,  whereas  the  origin  of  the  cephalo- 
pods is  still  a  mystery. 

Vertebrates.  —  As  a  preliminary  to  discussing  the  selection  of 
vertebrate  types  for  study  in  the  laboratory,  it  is  necessary  to 
consider  the  general  nature  of  the  study  to  be  made  on  repre- 
sentatives of  this  group. 

First,  I  wish  to  urge  that  the  general  natural  history  of 
higher  vertebrates  deserves  more  attention  than  is  now  com- 
monly given    in    courses    of   elementary  zoology,   value  of 
Time  was  in  the  days  of  the  old  natural  history   Jj^  Jf1  ffis~ 
when  text-books,  following  the  example  of  Cuvier's   Vertebrates. 
Animal  Kingdom,  first  presented  mammals,  and  then  in  turn 
birds,   lower  vertebrates,   and    finally   invertebrates ;  and,  ex- 


368  THE   TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

cepting  the  ever-popular  insects,  the  backboned  animals  then 
received  more  attention  than  those  of  all  other  phyla  together. 
But  all  this  was  changed  with  the  substitution  of  zoology  as  a 
science  for  the  natural  history  which  prevailed  in  schools 
before  1875.  The  study  of  vertebrates  became  narrowed 
down  to  that  of  a  few  or  even  a  single  type,  such  as  fish  or 
frog ;  and  high-school  zoology  became  primarily  invertebrate 
zoology.  This  change  in  the  selection  of  the  animals  to  be 
studied  was  directly  the  result  of  the  change  from  the  text- 
book to  the  laboratory  method  of  teaching,  associated  with 
which  were  necessary  changes  in  the  nature  of  the  subject- 
matter.  The  former  books  on  natural  history  placed  the 
emphasis  upon  external  characteristics,  habits  of  life,  life- 
histories,  classification,  and  economic  relations  —  all  of  which 
aspects  of  zoology  of  vertebrates  are  certainly  very  important 
in  general  education ;  and  there  was  practically  nothing  of 
the  anatomy  of  internal  organs.  In  contrast  with  this,  the 
elementary  teaching  concerning  vertebrates  tended  later  to 
become  almost  exclusively  morphological  because  this  phase 
is  so  well  adapted  to  the  laboratory  method  as  applied  in 
secondary  schools.  As  a  result,  general  information  regarding 
vertebrate  animals  came  to  be  rarely  presented  to  pupils. 
Instead  they  learned  the  general  classification  of  the  inverte- 
brate groups,  to  classify  and  describe  even  the  details  of 
structure  of  gastropods,  rhizopods,  and  echinoderms ;  but  not 
to  distinguish  between  whales  and  fishes,  bats  and  birds,  sala- 
manders and  lizards.  They  learned  to  recognize  at  sight 
such  names  as  Balanoglossus,  Paramoecium,  and  Lumbricus ; 
but  with  such  names  as  rodents,  carnivora,  ungulates,  and 
marsupials  there  was  little  acquaintance.  And  as  an  extreme 
case,  students  with  a  fair  knowledge  of  invertebrate  types 
have  failed  in  college-entrance  examinations  to  distinguish 
between  the  terms  mammalia  and  amphibia.  All  these  results 
are  not  surprising  in  the  light  of  the  fact  that  an  elementary 
course  in  zoology  which  omitted  even  the  simple  classification 
of  vertebrates  has  not  been  a  rarity  in  our  high  schools. 


ANIMAL    TYPES  FOR  LABORATORY        369 

The  recent  return  to  natural  history  has  been  working  against 
this  lack  of  general  knowledge  of  the  vertebrates.     Current 
books  for  secondary  schools,  for  example,  those  by 
Davenport,  Kellogg,  Kingsley,  Jordan  and  Heath,    Tendencies 
and  Colton,  aim  to  give  much  of  the  desirable  in-   Natural 
formation.     But  the  use  of  these  books  must  be 
carefully   considered,    for    their    subject-matter    in    the    lines 
under  discussion  is  essentially  similar  to  that  of  the  old  natural 
histories  which  were  displaced  by  the  adoption  of  the  practical 
method   of  teaching.      The   objection   which   is    often   urged 
against  natural-history  study  of  vertebrates  is  the  undoubted 
fact   that    it   is   not   easily  managed  as  practical  work ;    and 
consequently  it  is  usually  studied,  if  at  all,  as  mere  reading 
lessons  which   are    supplemental    to    the    actual    examination 
of  only  one  or  two  vertebrates  and  these  chiefly  from   the 
morphological  point  of  view. 

It  must  be  admitted  that  there  are  great  difficulties  in  the 
way  of  placing  the  teaching  of  natural  history  of  vertebrates 

upon  a  laboratory  basis,  even  when  numerous  and 

,  11        •  r  i-    •  •       i  Difficulties 

large  collections  of  living  animals  are  accessible,    of  Practical 

However,  if  we  turn  aside  to  name  vertebrates 
which  are  everywhere  common,  or  specimens  of  which  are 
easily  kept  alive  in  aquaria  or  vivaria,  it  will  be  evident  that 
practical  study  of  the  natural  history  of  representative  verte- 
brates is  possible  without  zoological  gardens  or  museums. 
For  example,  we  may  name  many  different  species  of  fishes, 
several  species  of  frogs,  the  common  toads,  newts,  salamanders, 
snakes,  the  lizards,  several  species  of  turtles,  alligators,  birds, 
rat  or  mouse,  horse,  dog,  cat,  and  man.  A  comparative  sur- 
vey of  the  general  external  characteristics  and  life-histories  of 
even  this  limited  list  would  certainly  give  the  students  a  good 
view  of  the  great  group  of  the  vertebrates ;  and  for  supple- 
mentary material  illustrating  the  less  common  forms  preserved 
museum  specimens  and  even  good  pictures  are  not  to  be  over- 
looked as  unimportant  and  unscientific. 

So  far  we  have  considered  vertebrates  simply  for  the  sake 

24 


3/0  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

of  general  acquaintance  with  the  general  natural  history  of  the 
The  Fro  8rouP'  But  m  a  well-regulated  course  in  general 

as  Basis  of  zoology  we  must  present  the  fundamental  principles 
Morphology  of  vertebrate  morphology  and  physiology.  Rarely 
ology.  in  a  high- school  course  could  more  than  one 

vertebrate  type  be  studied  as  a  basis  for  this  and  the  type 
par  excellence  is  the  common  frog.  A  few  teachers  would 
prefer  a  mammal  or  fish,  but  in  considering  introductory  types 
we  have  seen  that  the  frog  has  so  much  in  its  favor  that 
evidently  a  study  of  the  structure  and  functions  and  general 
development  of  this  animal  forms  an  excellent  foundation  for 
a  general  survey  of  the  natural  history  of  vertebrates  advo- 
cated above. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

AN    OUTLINE   FOR   AN   ELEMENTARY  COURSE   IN 
ZOOLOGY 

Introduction 

THE  outline  here  presented  is  in  spirit  and  general  form 
essentially  similar  to  that  which  was  published  in  Teachers 
College  Recorded.  II.,  No.  i,  January,  1901.  From  it  can 
be  selected  a  series  of  lessons  adapted  to  varying  combinations 
of  local  school  conditions.  Suggestions  regarding  such  selec- 
tion and  combination  into  courses  for  various  time-limits  are 
given  at  the  end  of  the  outline  (see  p.  390). 

The  principles  which  were  the  guiding  factors  in  the  devel- 
opment of  this  outline  have  been  discussed  in  the  preceding 
chapters.  In  essentials  they  may  be  here  summarized  as  fol- 
lows :  The  aim  is  to  give  pupils  the  best  possible  scientific 
training  along  with  information  regarding  the  essential  facts 
and  ideas  of  zoology.  Accordingly,  the  materials  are  chosen 
to  illustrate  the  leading  principles  of  the  various  phases  of 
the  science.  The  introduction  (Division  A)  aims  directly  at 
some  important  general  principles,  both  of  fundamental  facts 
and  of  the  scientific  method  of  studying  animals ;  in  short,  it 
aims  to  give  a  viewpoint  and  acquaintance  with  methods  of 
study  which  will  lay  a  foundation  for  all  later  zoological  study 
by  the  pupil.  Then  following  the  introduction  with  its  em- 
phasis upon  general  principles,  a  study  of  animal  types 
(Division  B)  serves  to  extend  the  illustration  and  application 
of  the  general  principles,  at  the  same  time  giving  acquaintance 
with  different  forms  of  animal  life. 

The  outline  is  intended  simply  to  be  suggestive  to  teachers, 
and  obviously  is  not  in  suitable  form  for  pupils'  use.  It  is  not 
intended  to  stand  for  a  stereotyped  course  of  study  —  such 


3/2  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

would  be  undesirable  in  any  science,  and  absolute  uniformity  is 
intolerable  in  that  it  stifles  the  originality  of  the  teacher.  Far 
from  attempting  to  dictate  a  plan  which  is  to  be  followed 
literally  and  constantly,  this  outline,  on  the  contrary,  looks 
towards  great  flexibility  at  the  option  of  the  teacher.  In 
short,  the  outline  is  intended  simply  to  suggest  one  mode  of 
presentation  of  the  most  important  zoological  topics,  at  the 
same  time  indicating  those  which  seem  to  the  writer  most  im- 
portant for  secondary  education ;  and  the  chief  reason  for  its 
insertion  in  this  volume  is  that  it  illustrates  concretely  many 
points  which  have  been  discussed  in  the  preceding  chapters 
dealing  with  the  general  principles  of  zoological  teaching. 
Those  discussions  are  all  essentially  prefatory  to  this  outline 
and  explanatory  of  its  point  of  view. 

In  the  introductory  study  (Division  A)  a  multicellular 
animal  with  well-marked  physiological  division  of  labor  is 
studied  from  various  viewpoints,  such  as  external  structure, 
internal  structure,  classification,  principles  of  physiology,  etc. 
In  elaborating  these  subjects  it  has  been  the  aim,  not  so  much 
to  include  those  points  which  are  of  significance  only  as  re- 
gards animals  closely  allied  to  the  one  being  studied,  but 
rather  to  bring  to  the  attention  of  the  pupils  those  facts  and 
principles  which  are  widely  applicable  throughout  the  animal 
kingdom.  The  minor  points  cannot  be  left  out  entirely,  but 
it  rests  with  the  teacher  to  emphasize  those  which  are  of 
primary  importance. 

DIVISION  A. 
General  Principles  of  ZoSlogy. 

/.  A  Study  of  the  Crayfish  as  an  Introduction  to  the 
Study  of  Animals}- 

I.  General  External  Structure  of  the  Crayfish.  —  (All  topics 
preceded  by  an  asterisk  *  are  suitable  for  supplementary  lec- 


1  As  suggested  under  the  heading  "  The  Insect  as  an  Introductory 
Type  "in  the  preceding  chapter,  this  study  of  the  crayfish  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  general  principles  of  zoology  may  be  preceded  by  two 


OUTLINE  FOR  ELEMENTARY  COURSE        373 

tures,  readings,  and  recitations,  which  should  be  held  in  close 
correlation  with  the  corresponding  laboratory  work.) 

1.  General  form  of  animal,  head-thorax,  abdomen,  appen- 
dages.    Definitions  and  identification   of  anterior,   posterior, 
dorsal,  ventral,   longitudinal,  and   transverse.     Bilateral  sym- 
metry of  this  and  other  familiar  animals,  such  as  domesticated 
animals   and    man.      Segments    of   the    abdomen.     Skeleton. 
*Moulting.    Outline  drawings1  (natural  size)  from  dorsal,  ven- 
tral, and  lateral  views,  labelling  the  chief  structures  represented. 

2.  Examination   of  the   gills.     Structure  of  a  lobster  gill. 
Diagram  showing  position  of  gills.     Currents  of  water  through 
gill-chamber  of  living  animal  as  shown  by  the  movement  of 
powdered  carmine  or  gamboge  placed  near  the  posterior  end 
of  gill-chamber. 

3.  Examination  of  appendages  and  comparisons  of  appen- 
dages VI.  to  XIII.  and  the  abdominal  appendages  (drawings). 
Arrangement  of  appendages  with  reference  to  the  segments  of 
the  abdomen  —  a  pair  of  appendages  represents  each  segment. 
How  many  segments  in   the  abdomen?     How  many  in    the 
head-thorax?     *The    principle    of    homology.2     *  Automatic 
amputation    of   appendages    and    regeneration.     Illustrate,    if 
possible,  by  specimens  found  regenerating. 

4.  Examine  and  compare  in  a  general  way  lobster,  prawn, 
crab,  and  crayfish.     In  tabular  form  and  with  sketches  record 
resemblances  and  differences  in  general  form  of  body,  number 
and  form  of  appendages,  and  number  of  segments.     Summarize 
the   general   characteristics  of  decapod   Crustacea  as  seen  in 


or  three  weeks  of  natural-history  studies  of  the  insects,  following  sug- 
gestions for  such  work  as  given  in  Division  B  of  this  outline.  This 
order  of  study  is  recommended  whenever  a  majority  of  the  pupils  have 
not  had  the  benefit  of  nature-study  in  the  elementary  school.  The  study 
of  the  crayfish  is  planned  for  twenty-five  hours  in  recitation  and  labo- 
ratory work.  The  reasons  for  selecting  the  crayfish  are  given  in  the  dis- 
cussions of  some  animals  as  introductory  types  in  the  preceding  chapter. 

1  For  suggestions  regarding  outline  drawings  and  laboratory  notes, 
see  the  preceding  chapter. 

2  The  homologies  of  the  first  five  pairs  of  appendages  are  meaning- 
less to  the  young  beginner. 


374  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

types  examined.  *  Principles  of  classification  as  illustrated  by 
crayfish  and  its  allies.  *Scientific  names  of  animals  —  nomen- 
clature. *Species,  genera,  orders,  illustrated  by  decapod 
Crustacea.  (Last  three  topics  are  well  discussed  in  Huxley's 
Crayfish.) 

5.  Study  of  the  living  crayfish  in  aquarium  —  movements, 
feeding,    habits    of    life,    senses,1   uses    of   the    appendages, 
adaptations. 

6.  *Natural  history.     Economic  importance.     Distribution 
shown  by  colored  map.2     Fossil  crayfishes. 

References  on  External  Structure  and  Natural  History : 

[NOTE.]  Full  bibliographical  references  to  books  mentioned  in  con- 
nection with  this  outline  will  be  found  in  Chapter  X.  The  references 
below  and  on  later  pages  may  be  supplemented  from  Chapter  X.,  espe- 
cially in  the  line  of  supplementary  reading  from  books  on  natural  history 
and  those  designed  primarily  for  school  use.  The  school-books  by 
Davenport,  Kdlogg,  Jordan  and  Kellogg,  Jordan  and  Heath,  Colton, 
Kingsley,  Needham,  Morse,  and  Tenney,  are  excellent  for  such  supple- 
mentary materials,  and  should  be  examined  by  the  teacher  in  selecting 
readings  for  the  pupils  in  connection  with  the  study  of  each  group  of 
animals.  For  this  reason  I  shall,  as  a  rule,  not  mention  them  in  the 
following  lists  of  books,  but  simply  refer  to  other  important  books. 


1  Within  the  limits  of  this  outline  it  is  impossible  to  specify  in  detail 
concerning  the  studies  of  the  living  crayfish   and   other  animals.      It 
should  be  mentioned  that  those  experiments  which  give  uncertain   re- 
sults are  avoided,  or  at  least  great  care  is  taken  to  guard  against  wrong 
conclusions.     Illustration  will  make  this  clear  ;  for  example,  in  the  com- 
mon experiment  to  test  for  a  sense  of  hearing  in  the  crayfish  the  possi- 
bility of  the  reaction  being  produced  by  ordinary  vibrations  aside  from 
sound  waves  should  be  explained  to  the  pupils.     (See  paper  by  Prentiss 
in  the  Bulletin  Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology,  Harvard  College,  1901.) 
Similarly  in  experiments  on  taste  and  smell  it  is  necessary  to  criticise 
severely  results  obtained  by  the  use  of  irritants,  such  as  ammonia,  clove 
oil,  and  other  like  substances,  which  authors  of  certain  laboratory  guides 
recommend. 

2  The  blank  outline  maps  of  the  continents  and  of  the  world  which 
are  used  by  teachers  of  geography  are  extremely  useful   for  teaching 
geographical    distribution    of   animals.      The  areas  where    a  particular 
animal  is  said  to  occur  should  be  shaded  with  a  colored  crayon,  and  by 
using  several  colors  the  distribution  of  several  forms,  e.g.,  lobster  and 
crayfish,  can  be  compared.     See  map  in  Huxley's  The  Crayfish. 


OUTLINE  FOR   ELEMENTARY  COURSE        375 

For  Pupils'  Reading  : 

Morgan's  Animal  Sketches,  Chapter  XX.;  Huxley's  Crayfish,  first 
chapters. 

For  Teachers : 

Huxley's  Crayfish,  Marshall  and  Hurst's  Practical  Zoology,  Parker 
and  Parker's  Practical  Zoology,  Kingsley's  Comparative  Zoology,  Pratt's 
Invertebrate  Zoology,  Herrick's  The  American  Lobster  (Report  of  the 
United  States  Fish  Commission),  Thomson's  Outlines  of  Zoology,  Parker 
and  Haswell's  Text-book  of  Zoology. 

IL  General  Internal  Structure  of  Crayfish.  —  7.  Study  of  a 
series  of  stages x  in  dissections  by  pupils,  and  of  preparations 
showing  general  arrangement  of  the  internal  organs  —  diges- 
tive, circulatory,  respiratory,  excretory,  muscular,  nervous,  and 
reproductive. 

///.  Introductory  Microscopic  Work  and  Elementary  His- 
tology. 

[NOTE.]  In  this  connection  the  pupils  are  introduced  to  the  com- 
pound microscope.  (See  discussion  of  microscope  and  multicellular 
animals  in  Chapter  VI.)  The  instrument  itself  is  studied  during  one 
hour,  the  pupils  being  guided  by  oral,  printed,  or  typewritten  direc- 
tions involving  a  description  of  the  microscope,  accompanied  with  a 
diagram  on  which  the  parts  are  all  labelled.  Pictures  cut  from  cata- 
logues of  dealers  in  compound  microscopes  and  pasted  on  cardboard  are 
useful  for  this  purpose.  Printed  letters  pasted  on  glass  slides,  cotton 
fibres  and  hairs  mounted  in  water  under  a  cover-slip  are  useful  objects 
for  practice  with  the  instrument. 

Most  of  the  preparations  mentioned  below,  which  require  high  powers, 
are  arranged  by  the  instructor  ;  and,  after  explanation  by  diagrams,  the 
preparations  are  examined  by  the  pupils,  and  drawings  are  made. 

8.  Examination  of  preparations  from  various  organs  — 
liver,  gill,  intestine,  muscle.  (The  aim  here  is  to  give  some 
general  ideas  of  tissues  and  cells  in  the  structure  of  the  animal 
body;  nothing  in  line  of  formal  histology  is  intended.  It  is 
therefore  not  absolutely  necessary  that  preparations  of  the 


1  The  series  of  most  important  stages  and  drawings  suggested  in 
Teachers  College  Record,  Vol.  II.,  No.  I,  p.  17. 


3/6  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

crayfish  should  be  -used  to  illustrate  the  facts  of  cellular  struc- 
ture, and  preparations  from  frog  or  other  animals  may  be 
substituted  in  this  connection.) 

References  for  Teachers  : 

Parker's  Biology,  Lesson  6.  Parker  and  Parker's  Practical  Zoology, 
Chapter  VII. 

IV.  Elementary  Embryological  Study.  —  9.  Demonstra- 
tions of  preparations  of  the  ovary  and  spermary  of  crayfish  or 
other  animal,  illustrating  the  cellular  nature  of  the  germ-cells 
(egg-cells  and  sperm-cells).  Demonstration  of  preparations 
showing  male  and  female  pronuclei  approaching  and  uniting 
in  fertilization.1  Preparations  showing  phases  of  mitosis  in 
first  and  second  cleavages  in  any  favorable  egg.  *Cell-divi- 
sion.  *Cells  in  development  and  growth  of  animals.  *A11 
life  from  life  and  spontaneous  generation.  (See  Parker's 
Biology,  Lesson  9.) 

10.  Examine  a  crayfish,  lobster,  or  prawn,  with  eggs  at- 
tached to  the  appendages.  Examine  stages  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  crayfish  or  lobster. 

References  for  Teachers : 
Huxley's  Crayfish. 

V.  *  General  Principles  of  Animal  Physiology  as  Illustrated 
by  the  Crayfish.  —  n.  Movements  and  the  muscular  work  of 
the  body.  Source  of  the  energy  thus  manifested.  Statement 
of  the  law  of  conservation  of  energy,  and  familiar  applications. 
Oxidation  in  liberation  of  energy  and  illustrations.  Foods  as 
sources  of  energy.  The  need  of  oxygen.  Waste,  repair,  and 
growth  of  the  body. 

1  Fertilization  and  cell-division  are  better  illustrated  by  preparations 
from  animals  other  than  the  crayfish.  At  various  times  such  material  as 
the  starfish,  sea-urchin,  barnacle,  and  mollusk  eggs  have  been  used  in 
this  connection  and  found  satisfactory. 

In  the  descriptions  of  cytological  structures  and  processes  all  details 
involving  the  intricacies  of  centrosomes  and  chromosomes  should  be 
avoided. 


OUTLINE  FOR  ELEMENTARY  COURSE        377 

12.  The  stages  of  nutrition  and  the    essential  processes  in- 
volved in  each  —  digestion,  absorption,  circulation,  assimila- 
tion,   respiration,  dissimilation,  excretion.     Special   attention 
should  be  given  to  the  idea  that  physiological  processes  are 
ultimately  referable  to  the  component  cells  of  the  organs ;  and 
also  emphasis  should  be  placed  on  the  consideration  of  each 
process  as  related  to   the  life  of  the  body  as  a  whole,  that  is, 
to  general  nutrition.     Finally,  the  nervous  system  should  be 
considered  as  a  regulating  and  coordinating  mechanism,  and  as 
a  medium  of  communication  with  the  world  external  to  the 
body. 

13.  Physiological  division  of  labor  in  the  crayfish.     Illus- 
trations of  the  principle  as  shown  by  specialization  in  human 
social  organizations. 

Relation  of  crayfish  to  its  environment  —  Ecology. 
Animals  in   their  relation  to  plants  in  the  ultimate   food 
supply. 

Reading  for  Pupils  : 

Kellogg's  Zoology,  Chapter  III.  Martin's  Human  Body,  Briefer 
Course,  Chapters  II.,  VII.,  VIII.,  IX. 

References  for  Teachers; 

The  general  trend  of  the  elaboration  of  the  topics  in  physiology  is 
planned  to  follow  that  of  Chapters  VIII.,  IX.,  and  X.  in  Martin's 
The  Hitman  Body,  Briefer  Course  (1898  edition).  In  earlier  editions  the 
chapters  are  numbered  differently,  but  bear  the  same  headings:  "  Why 
We  Eat  and  Breathe,"  "Nutrition,"  and  "  Foods."  These  chapters  are 
so  general  that  they  can  easily  be  adapted  to  apply  to  any  animal. 

Many  suggestions  concerning  the  presentation  of  the  general  principles 
of  physiology  in  connection  with  the  study  of  the  lower  animals  are  to 
be  found  in  The  Crayfish  as  an  Introduction  to  the  Stttdy  of  Zoology,  by 
Huxley,  and  in  the  account  of  the  earthworm  in  Sedgwick  and  Wilson's 
General  Biology. 

VI.  Summary  of  the  Introductory  Study.  —  The  teacher 
should  call  attention  to  the  study  of  the  crayfish  as  illustrat- 
ing the  various  standpoints  from  which  any  animal  may  be 
studied,  namely,  external  structures  with  homologies  and 


378  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

adaptations,  internal  structure  and  functions,  gross  and  minute 
anatomy,  classification  based  upon  resemblance  of  structures, 
distribution  in  space  and  time,  development  of  the  individual, 
relation  to  environmental  conditions,  life-histories,  and  habits 
—  these  phases  of  zoology  are  all  illustrated  by  the  study  of 
the  crayfish.1 

Definitions  of  biology,  zoology,  botany,  morphology,  phys- 
iology, anatomy,  histology,  embryology,  and  ecology.  All 
of  these  phases  of  zoological  science  are  involved  in  the  study 
of  the  crayfish,  and  reference  should  be  made  to  exercises  in 
which  work  in  anatomy,  physiology,  etc.,  was  introduced. 

A  Study  of  the  Frog  as  an  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Animals. 

For  reasons  already  stated  (p.  360),  the  frog  may  be  taken  as  the 
introductory  type  instead  of  the  crayfish.  If  the  frog  is  selected,  it  is 
urged  that  the  study  should  follow  the  general  lines  of  the  preceding 
outlines  for  the  study  of  the  crayfish,  including  external  and  internal 
structures,  introductory  microscopic  work  and  elementary  histology, 
elementary  embryology,  and  general  principles  of  animal  physiology  — 
in  all  of  these  respects  the  frog  should  be  treated  as  illustrating  and 
introducing  the  general  principles  of  zoology. 

Other  suggestions  for  elaborating  such  lesson  plans  for  the  study  of 
the  frog  are  given  in  the  final  part  of  this  outline  of  a  course.  Parker 
and  Parker's  Practical  Zoology  will  be  indispensable  for  the  teacher  who 
adopts  the  plan  of  beginning  with  the  frog,  for  the  book  well  presents 
the  animal  from  the  combined  standpoints  of  its  structure,  functions, 
and  relations,  as  an  introduction  to  the  essentials  of  morphology,  physi- 
ology, and  other  phases  of  zoological  study. 

If  the  teacher  wishes  to  contrast  a  vertebrate  and  an  invertebrate,  an 
excellent  plan  is  to  study  both  frog  and  crayfish  as  introductory  types, 
as  suggested  in  Kellogg's  Elementary  Zoology.  However,  I  prefer  to 
leave  the  vertebrates  until  the  end  of  the  course  and  then  make  the 
study  lead  directly  into  application  to  the  morphology  and  physiology 
of  the  human  body. 


1  Throughout  the  course  it  should  be  continually  impressed  upon 
the  pupils  that  no  part  of  the  present  study  is  exhaustive,  and  sug- 
gestions for  work  beyond  this  course  should  be  frequently  made  in  order 
to  stimulate  the  pupils  to  a  wider  interest.  Pupils  should  never  be 
allowed  to  get  the  impressions  that  they  have  really  finished  any  topic. 


OUTLINE  FOR  ELEMENTARY  COURSE        379 

//.    A  Study  of  a  One-Celled  Animal. 

The  crayfish  (or  frog)  having  served  for  introduction  to  some 
general  principles  of  zoology  and  general  methods  of  laboratory 
work,  a  protozoan  should  now  be  examined  in  order  that  in  its 
structure  and  function  it  may  be  compared  with  the  multi- 
cellular  animal.  Such  comparisons  will  help  to  an  under- 
standing of  many  of  the  most  important  general  principles  of 
zoology  which  have  been  presented  in  the  introductory  study. 
After  four  or  five  weeks'  work  with  the  crayfish  (or  frog)  the 
pupils  are  in  a  position  to  understand  the  study  of  a  one- 
celled  animal,  for  the  study  of  a  higher  animal  will  have  pre- 
pared them  against  many  difficulties  which  always  arise  when 
a  protozoan  is  used  as  the  introductory  type.  (See  discussion  in 
chapter  on  "The  Beginning  Work.")  The  average  pupil 
will  probably  grasp  the  meaning  of  a  one-celled  animal  as 
well  now  as  later  in  the  course,  for  at  this  stage  the  pupils 
will  have  in  mind  the  general  structure  and  function  of  at 
least  one  higher  animal.  It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  at  any 
stage  of  an  elementary  course  the  average  pupil  will  grasp  the 
full  significance  of  the  unicellular  type  in  its  synthetic  relations 
to  the  cellular  structure  and  functions  of  multicellular  animals  ; 
but  many  of  the  important  points  will  be  understood  by  all 
except  the  dullest  pupils  and  interest  in  zoological  study  will 
be  stimulated. 

a.  Paramcecium.     Laboratory  study :   movements,  form  of 
body,  apparatus  for  securing  food,  mechanism  of  locomotion 
—  cilia,    general   appearance    of   body-substance,   nucleus  in 
stained  preparations,  food  in  body,  contractile  vacuoles,  divi- 
sion in  living  and  stained  specimens. 

[NOTE.]  In  elementary  work  it  is  best  not  to  confuse  by  calling  at- 
tention to  the  micro-,  and  mega-nuclei.  Calling  attention  to  the  simple 
fact  that  there  is  a  specially  differentiated  nuclear  substance  is  sufficient 
for  establishing  general  ideas  of  the  cellular  nature  of  a  protozoan,  a 
mass  of  protoplasm  with  a  nucleus. 

b.  Amoeba.    Habitat  of  Amoeba,  form  of  body,  method  of 


380  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

locomotion,    appearance    of    body-substance     (protoplasm), 
food,  nucleus,  and  contractile  vacuole. 

[NOTE.]  Unless  material  is  very  abundant,  this  animal  will  need  to 
be  demonstrated  by  the  instructor.  Some  of  the  structures  mentioned 
below  are  difficult  to  demonstrate,  and  many  pupils  will  fail  to  see  them. 
It  is  not  probable  that  amoebas  will  often  be  found  favorable  for  the 
observation  of  all  such  processes  as  division  and  reception  of  food,  which 
most  laboratory  manuals  direct  pupils  to  "  observe." 

c.  *Physiology  of  a    one-celled    animal :     movement   and 
energy,  application  of  the  law  of  conservation  of  energy  as  in 
case  of  crayfish,  food  as  source  of  energy,  intra- cellular  diges- 
tion, assimilation,  dissimilation    (oxidation),  and  demand  for 
oxygen,   respiration,  removal    of  products  of  dissimilation  — 
excretion  of  CO2  and  nitrogenous  waste.     No  need  of  special 
system  of  circulation  for  communication  between  exterior  and 
innermost  part  of  body.     Irritability  and  nervous  functions  of 
Paramcecium.     Growth  as  result  of  repair  by  assimilation  ex- 
ceeding waste  by  dissimilation.     Division  as  a  simple  method 
of  reproduction.     Compare    functions    of    Paramoecium   with 
those   of  crayfish,  and  the  physiological  division  of  labor  in 
the  two  animals.     Differentiation  of  cells  in  the  many-celled 
animals. 

d.  Various  forms    of  Protozoa    may   be    demonstrated    in 
order  that  the  pupils  may  gain  some  idea  of  the  great  variety 
of  unicellular   animal    life.     Stentor,   Stylonichia,    Vorticella, 
Spirostomum,    and    Euglena,    are    common  forms  which  are 
easily  demonstrated  with  low  power  of  the  compound  micro- 
scope. 

.References  for  Teachers  : 

Parker's  Elementary  Biology,  or  Parker  and  Parker's  Practical  Zool- 
ogy, chapters  on  Amoeba,  Paramoecium,  and  other  protozoa ;  Calkins's 
The  Protozoa. 

DIVISION  B. 

Studies  of  Animal  Types. 

The  crayfish  (or  frog)  and  a  protozoan  having  served  as  a 
basis  for  the  introduction  to  some  of  the  most  important 


OUTLINE  FOR   ELEMENTARY  COURSE        381 

general  principles  of  animal  structure,  functions,  and  relations, 
less  extensive  studies  of  representatives  of  the  important 
groups  of  invertebrate  animals  may  follow.  This  in  turn  may 
be  followed  by  a  study  of  common  vertebrates  at  the  close  of 
the  course. 

In  these  studies  of  invertebrate  animal  types  the  aim  is  to 
give  acquaintance  with  common  animals  and  to  extend  the 
application  of  the  principles  of  morphology  and  physiology 
which  are  first  introduced  by  the  study  of  the  crayfish  (or 
frog).  Unless  otherwise  specified,  the  laboratory  study  is 
planned  from  the  standpoint  of  external  structure,  especial 
attention  being  given  to  those  characteristics  which  underlie 
general  classification  and  adaptation  to  environment.  It  is 
urged  that,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  instances  indicated  in 
the  outline,  classification  should  not  be  carried  below  the 
orders.  Pupils  should  always  see  the  forms  classified  and 
understand  the  resemblances  of  structure  upon  which  the 
grouping  is  based.  In  short,  the  study  of  classification  should 
give  pupils  that  training  already  discussed  under  this  topic  in 
Chapter  II.  The  uses  of  parts  should  be  determined  by  ex- 
periment whenever  possible,  and  stress  placed  upon  the  study 
of  habits,  life-histories,  and  ecological  relations. 

Ccelenterates.1 

a.  Hydra.  General  structure  as  illustrated  by  a  living  ani- 
mal and  transverse  and  longitudinal  sections,  form  of  body,  ten- 
tacles, mouth,  base,  two  cellular  layers  of  body-wall,  digestive 
cavity,  stinging  organs.  Reproduction  by  budding  (asexual) 
and  by  eggs  and  sperms  (sexual).  Movements,  responses  to 
stimuli,  feeding.  *  Life-history.  *  Radial  symmetry.  *  Physi- 
ology of  the  hydra  as  compared  with  that  of  the  crayfish. 
Regeneration  of  hydra  (demonstrations). 

References : 

Parker's  Elementary  Biology,  Parker  and  Parker's  Practical  Zool- 
ogy. 


1  As  a  preface  to  this  outline  the  reader  should  consult  the  notes  on 
"  Coelenterates  "  in  the  preceding  chapter. 


382  THE   TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

b.  Hydroid  colony  (Pennaria,  Obelia,  Campanularia) . 
Structure  of  a  colony  and  of  the  individual  zooids. 
Compare  a    zooid    with  a  hydra.    Formation    of  medusae. 

General  structure  of  a  hydromedusa  (Gonionemus). 

*  Life- history  and  alternation  of  generations  in  hydroids. 

c.  Corals. 

Sea-anemone  (Metridum  or  Sagartia).  External  structure 
and  transverse  and  longitudinal  sections.  Skeletons  of  corals 
with  and  without  zooids  in  position.  *  Corals  —  life-history, 
distribution,  formation  of  skeletons,  island  formation. 

References: 

Dana's  Corah  and  Coral  Islands,  Parker  and  Haswell's  Text-Book 
of  Zoology. 

Sponges. 

Structure  of  Grantia.  Fresh-water  sponges1  (Spongilla). 
Commercial  sponges.  Glass  sponges.  Life-history,  and  forma- 
tion of  the  skeletons. 

Worms. 

[NOTE.]  For  the  purpose  of  this  outline  it  seems  best  not  to  use  the 
modern  subdivisions  of  this  heterogeneous  group.  The  various  phyla 
into  which  the  old  sub-kingdom  Vermes  is  now  divided  are  not  dis- 
tinguished by  characteristics  which  can  be  appreciated  by  a  beginner, 
and  for  the  purposes  of  a  limited  elementary  course  in  a  secondary 
school  we  must  continue  to  follow  the  old  classification,  recognizing 
Vermes  as  one  of  the  primary  subdivisions  of  the  animal  kingdom.  "  The 
term  'worm'  is  little  more  than  a  name  for  a  shape";  but  coupled  with 
the  adjectives  round,  flat,  and  segmented,  it  gives  in  the  very  name 
about  as  complete  and  definite  a  characterization  of  the  three  important 
phyla,  —  Platyhelminthes,  Nemathelminthes,  and  Annulata, — as  it  is 
possible  for  a  beginner  to  understand. 

a.  Earthworm. 

External  structure  —  form  of  body,  number  of  segments  in 
large  and  small  worms,  setae.  Drawings :  anterior  end  with 


1  These  common  sponges  are  too  complex  for  elementary  study,  but 
specimens  (preferably  living)  should  be  examined  merely  for  the  sake  of 
gaining  acquaintance  with  the  type. 


OUTLINE  FOR  ELEMENTARY  COURSE        383 

segments  1-35  ;  posterior  end,  diagrams  showing  arrangement 
of  setae.  Movements  and  reactions  of  living  worm.  Field 
observations.  Examination  of  the  general  internal  anatomy.1 

*  Life-history  of  the  earthworm.     *  Economic  importance. 

Structure  and  function  of  earthworm  and  crayfish  compared. 

b.  Nereis.      (Supplementary  work.) 

External  structure.  Compare  with  earthworm.  Specialized 
head  and  appendages.  Drawings  —  head-end  with  proboscis 
extended  and  retracted,  dorsal  views  :  tail-end  in  dorsal  view ; 
ten  adjacent  segments  in  transverse  section  of  a  middle  seg- 
ment, showing  appendages.  If  living  worms  are  obtainable, 
study  movements  and  blood  circulation  as  seen  through  the 
transparent  skin. 

c.  Leeches.      (Supplementary  work.) 

External  structure.     Observe  living  leech  in  a  glass  of  water. 

d.  Flat  worms. 

[NOTE.]  It  is  not  reasonable  to  suppose  that  pupils  in  the  high 
school  can  satisfactorily  study  the  internal  anatomy  of  the  flat  worms 
and  round  worms.  In  a  living  planarian  the  alimentary  canal  will 
attract  attention,  but  otherwise  external  study  alone  is  practicable. 

Planarians  (living)  and  tapeworm  (preserved).  *  Life-his- 
tories. *  Parasitism. 

e.  Round  worms.      (Supplementary.) 

Vinegar-eel,    trichina,  and    "horsehair   snake"   (Gordius). 
*  Life-histories. 
f.  Rotifers.     (Supplementary.) 

[NOTE.]  Demonstrations  merely  for  sake  of  giving  acquaintance 
with  these  common  animals.  It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  high-school 
pupils  can  see  any  relation  between  these  and  other  "worms." 

Reading  for  Pupils : 

Kellogg's  Zoology,  Chapter  XX.  Davenport's  Zoology,  Chapters  IX. 
and  X.  Jordan  and  Heath's  Animal  Forms,  Chapter  VI.,  and  Darwin's 

Earthworm  and  Vegetable  Mould. 


1  The  earthworm  is  not  easily  dissected  by  a  beginner,  and  prepara- 
tions may  be  used  to  illustrate  the  internal  structures.  The  worms  are 
dissected  in  the  ordinary  way,  are  pinned  on  strips  of  cork-carpet  as  sug- 
gested on  p.  403. 


384  THE   TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

References  for  Teachers : 

Sedgwick  and  Wilson's  General  Biology.  Darwin's  Earthworm  and 
Vegetable  Mould. 

Insects. 

a.  The  locust  (grasshopper)  or  cricket.1 

Examination  of  external  structure.  Study  of  habits.  Stages 
in  life-history.  Compare  adults  of  two  or  more  species.  In 
tabular  form  compare  the  grasshopper  with  the  crayfish. 

b.  Butterfly  or  moth.      Examination  of  adult  caterpillar  and 
chrysalis  of  some  butterfly  or  moth,  e.g.,  the  milkweed  (Danais 
or  Anosia),  or  the  mourning  cloak  (Vanessa),  or  the  Cecropia 
moth.     *  Metamorphosis. 

c.  Determination  of  the  distinguishing  features  of  the  im- 
portant orders  of  insects  by  comparing  the   external   struc- 
tures of  common  representatives,  e.g.,  fly,  beetle,  dragon-fly, 
cicada,  bee,  locust,  and  butterfly.     Collection  of  insects  with 
at  least  two  representatives  of  each  common  order ;  only  some 
very  familiar  forms  to  be  identified  as  to  genus  and  species. 

d.  Life-histories  of  cricket,  beetle,  bee,  ant,  fly,  May-fly, 
and  cicada.     Examination  of  adults  and  larval  stages. 

*  Protective  resemblance,  mimicry,  parasitism,  commensal- 
ism,  social  life,  and  economic  relations. 

Field  study  of  insects.  This  interesting  and  profitable 
study  should  be  made  as  extensive  as  time  and  local  condi- 
tions will  permit.  Comstock's  Insect  Life,  Needham's  Zoology 
and  Kellogg's  Zoologies,  are  full  of  suggestions  for  such  work. 
Some  natural-history  studies  of  arachnids  and  myriapods  may 
be  added. 

Summary  of  the  phylum  Arthropoda  —  general  characteris- 
tics as  illustrated  by  the  types  studied,  general  classifica- 
tion. The  wealth  of  numbers  of  species  and  individuals,  and 
the  variety  of  form  in  the  phylum.  References  on  insects 
and  arachnids  are  given  under  "  Animal  Natural  History  "  in 
Chapter  X. 


1  Good  directions  for  the  study  of  these  orthopterans  are  found  in 
many  of  the  elementary  laboratory  manuals  named  in  Chapter  X. 


OUTLINE  FOR  ELEMENTARY  COURSE        385 

Mollusks. 

a.  Snail.1     Study  of  living  animal,   external  structure   and 
habits.     Shell  —  apex,  aperture,  umbilicus,    lines   of   growth, 
columella,    direction    of    twist.     Structure     of    shell  —  three 
layers.     Test  with  dilute  acid,  and  burn  a  piece  in  Bunsen 
flame.     Examine   shells    of  various   marine    gasteropods  and 
also  shells  and  living  specimens  of  our  common  native  snails 
of  genera  Helix,  Physa,  Limnaea,  and   Planorbis.     Examine 
set  of  Helix   nemorosa    showing    individual   color   variation. 
*  Individual  variation  of  animals. 

Animal  removed  from  shell  by  breaking  away  that  structure. 
Location  of  the  organs  which  are  visible  without  dissection. 

b.  Slug  (Limax).      Examine  living  slug,  and  compare  with 
snail.     Observe  movements  and  habits. 

c.  Mussels  and  clams,  marine  and  fresh-water  species.     Ex- 
amine shell,  right  and  left  valves,  inside  and  outside,  dorsal 
and  ventral  margin,  anterior  and  posterior  ends,  hinge,  lines  of 
growth,  hinge-teeth,  muscle  scars,  pallial  line,  mouth,  digestive 
gland,  pericardial  chamber.     Structure  of  shell  —  three  layers. 
*Pearl  formation.     Animal  with  one  valve  of  shell  removed  — 
location    of    superficial    organs    without    dissection  —  mantle, 
muscles,  siphons,  foot,  gills,  palps.     Living  clams  in  aquaria. 
Currents  indicated  by  powdered  carmine  or  India  ink  placed 
near  the   siphons    (diagrams  showing  directions  of  current). 
Locomotion.     Feeding.     *  Life-history  of  fresh-water  clams. 

d.  Oyster.  Examine  several  shells  and  compare  forms.  Effect 
of  sedentary  life  upon  the  shell ;  compare  with  the  free-moving 
clams.    Locate  structures  mentioned  for  clam-shell.    Compare 
right  and  left  valves.     Currents  in  living  oyster  and  relation  to 
respiration  and  food-supply.    Microscopic  examination  of  mov- 
ing cilia  on  oyster  gill.2     Cause  of  currents.     Examine  oyster 
with  right  valve  removed.     Locate   principal  organs  without 


1  See  note  on  European  edible  snail  in  the  next  chapter. 

2  A  small  piece  of  a  living  gill  is  cut  off  and  mounted  on  a  micro- 
scopic slide  in  a  drop  of  the  fluid  found  in  the  mantle  chamber. 

25 


386  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

dissection.     Examine    young   oysters    ("spat").      *  Growing 
oyster  for  markets. 

Examine  shells  of  other  bivalves,  comparing  all  points  with 
shell  of  clam. 

References  on  Oyster : 

Morgan's  Animal  Sketches,  Chapter  XXI. 

e.  Cephalopods.      (Supplementary  work.) 

If  materials  are  available,  the  following  points  may  be 
demonstrated  in  connection  with  a  talk  or  reading  on  the 
natural  history  of  cephalopods  :  External  structure  of  squid 
and  octopus.  Nautilus  shell  sectioned  to  show  chambers. 
Shell  of  paper  nautilus.  See  discussion  of  cephalopods  in  the 
preceding  chapter. 

Echinoderms. 
(Supplementary  work.) 

As  explaining  the  point  of  view  of  this  outline,  see  notes  on 
echinoderms  in  the  preceding  chapter. 

a.  Starfish.      General  external   structure.     Demonstrate  on 
preparations  the  principal  internal  organs.     *  Method  of  feed- 
ing and  locomotion.     *  Power  of  regeneration.     *  Economic 
relations  to  the  oyster  industry.     *  Habitat  and  geographical 
distribution. 

b.  Exhibition    of   specimens    of    sea-urchins,    sand-dollars, 
brittle  stars,  sea-cucumber,  fossil  and  alcoholic  specimens  of 
crinoids ;    and  demonstrations    by   the   teacher  of  the  chief 
characteristics  which   show   relationships    to    starfish.      Point 
out  the  general  characteristics  of  the  phylum  as  seen  in  these 
forms.     *Habits  of  life  and  distribution. 

Vertebrates. 
I.    The  Frog  as  a    Vertebrate  Type. 

Anatomy  :  Chief  external  characters.  Bilateral  symmetry ; 
anterior,  posterior,  dorsal,  and  ventral ;  compare  with  dog 
and  man. 


OUTLINE  FOR  ELEMENTARY  COURSE        387 

General  internal  structure  : 1  mouth-cavity ;  body-cavity  ; 
general  plans  of  digestive,  circulatory,  respiratory,  excretory, 
reproductive  and  nervous  systems ;  identification  of  heart, 
liver,  gall-bladder,  lungs,  digestive  canal,  pancreas,  mesentery, 
peritoneum,  urinary  bladder,  ovaries,  oviducts,  spermaries, 
sperm-ducts,  kidneys,  ureters,  large  blood-vessels,  brain,  spinal 
cord,  and  chief  nerves.  (Illustrate  with  diagrams  of  systems 
of  organs.) 

Histology :  The  simple  tissues  of  the  frog.  Examine  in  a 
frog  preserved  in  formalin  the  following  tissues,  and  note  their 
distinguishing  features  as  seen  by  the  unaided  eye  :  epithelium 
of  skin  ind  lining  of  alimentary  canal ;  muscle  from  leg ;  bone  ; 
cartilage  from  sternum ;  connective  tissue  from  beneath  skin ; 
nervous  tissue,  fatty  tissue,  and  blood.  It  will  be  evident  that 
these  simple  tissues  make  up  the  body.  Make  a  table  showing 
what  tissues  enter  into  various  parts  of  the  body.  Microscopic 
study  of  the  simple  tissues.2 

Physiology :  It  is  suggested  that  the  physiology  of  the  frog 
be  developed  along  the  lines  of  the  topics  suggested  for  the 
introductory  type  (see  p.  378).  Parker  and  Parker's  Prac- 
tical Zoology  gives  a  good  general  account  of  the  subject  and 
many  experiments  which  the  teacher  can  easily  adapt  to  sec- 
ondary-school pupils. 

Embryology  :  Development  of  the  amphibian  egg.3  Struc- 
ture of  the  reproductive  organs  in  the  female  frog.  Escape  of 


1  Dissections  in  part  by  the  pupil.     Preparations  by  the  instructor 
should  be  kept  at  hand  for  reference  and  demonstration.     It  is  recom- 
mended that  the  general  plan  of  Chapter  II.  in  Parker  and  Parker's  Prac- 
tical Zoology  be  followed. 

2  Fresh  material  is  used  for  most  of  this  work  and  is  supplemented 
by  prepared  slides.     Directions  for  preparing  fresh  tissues  are  given  in 
Parker  and  Parker's  Practical  Zoology. 

3  If  this  work  comes  at  a  season  when  developing  eggs  cannot  be 
obtained,  preserved  material  (see  page  408)  may  be  used.     When  living 
eggs  are  obtainable  they  should  be  taken  home  by  the  pupils  and  the 
general  development  observed,  and  sketches  made  from  day  to  day  as 
long  as  it  is  possible  to  keep  the  tadpoles  alive,  by  feeding  on  small 
pieces  of  meat,  corn  meal,  and  green  water-plants. 


388  THE   TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

eggs  from  ovaries  to  the  water.  *  The  essential  histological 
nature  of  the  fertilization  process.  Division  of  the  egg  (one 
cell)  into  many  cells.  General  development  of  chief  organs. 
General  structure  of  tadpole  and  its  metamorphosis. 

*  Oviparous  and  viviparous  development  —  advantages  and 
relative  numbers  of  young  individuals.1 

Classification :  To  be  taken  up  later  after  other  amphibians 
are  known. 

Reading  for  Pupils : 

Needham's  Lessons  in  Zoology,  pp.  196, 197.  Morgan's  Animal  Sketches y 
Chapter  XV.  Jordan  and  Heath's  Animal  Forms.  Kellogg's  Elemen- 
tary Zoology. 

II.   Studies  of  other   Vertebrates. 

a.  The  fishes.2     Examination   of  a   teleost   and  dogfish  : 
general    external   characteristics.     Living  fishes :    movements, 
habits,    food,    respiratory    movements.     *  Development    illus- 
trated by  a  series  of  trout  embryos.     *Artificial  propagation 
and  its  economic  importance.     *General  characteristics  of  the 
class.     *Economic  value.     *Geographical  distribution. 

b.  The  Amphibia.     Examination  of  external  characteristics 
and  habits  of  the  urodele  amphibians  (salamander,  newt,  mud- 
puppy)  .    *The  amphibia  :  characteristics  of  the  orders.    Com- 


1  This  may  be  well  illustrated  by  comparing  ordinary  fish   or  sala- 
mander with  an  Alpine  salamander  in  which  the  eggs  stop  in  lower  part 
of  the  oviduct,  and  there  develop,  the  young  being  born  alive.     In  one 
species  only  two  young  are  produced,  whereas  in  ordinary  salamanders 
with   oviparous  development  the  young  are  numerous.      This  offers  a 
good   opportunity  for  teaching  the  essentials  of  internal   development 
suggesting  that  of  mammals. 

Toad  tadpoles  will  complete  their  metamorphosis  before  the  close  of 
school  in  June  and  the  transformation  may  be  observed  in  all  its  stages. 

Ziegler's  wax  models  representing  the  development  of  the  frog  are 
very  useful.  The  series  of  twenty-five  models  costs  about  $28  when  im- 
ported duty  free  by  dealers,  for  example,  the  Kny-Scheerer  Co.,  New 
York. 

2  For  the  point  of  view  in  this  and  the  following  suggestions  for  study 
of  types  of  vertebrates,  see  the  notes  on  "  Vertebrates  "  in  the  preceding 
chapter. 


OUTLINE   FOR   ELEMENTARY  COURSE        389 

pare  various  species  of  frogs,  toads,  salamanders,  newts,  and 
other  available  amphibians  with  reference  to  their  points  of 
general  similarity. 

c.  The  reptiles,     important  orders  and  their  characteris- 
tics ;  limited  examination  of  lizard,  snake,  alligator,  and  turtle. 
*General     characteristics    of    the    class.     *Geographical    dis- 
tribution.    *Useful  members  of  the  class.     *General  aspects 
of  the  embryonic  development ;  demonstrations  of  embryos. 

d.  The  birds.     General  external  structure  of  a  bird,     im- 
portant orders  and  their  chief  characteristics.     *  Useful  birds. 
*Suggestions  for  field  study.     Demonstration  :  series  of  chick 
embryos.     *General  sketch  of  the  development. 

e.  The  mammals.     *  Principal  orders :  their  characteristics 
as  seen  in  familiar  representatives. 

After  completing  examination  of  the  common  types  of  the 
vertebrate  classes,  a  practical  exercise  dealing  with  the  leading 
characteristics  of  the  groups  should  be  introduced,  and  pupils 
should  review  their  notes  and  construct  tables  showing  charac- 
teristics of  the  five  classes  of  vertebrates  with  reference  to  the 
following  points  :  nature  of  skin  and  its  covering ;  method  of 
locomotion  ;  breathing  organs ;  development  —  oviparous  or 
viviparous  ;  paired  appendages  ;  habitat  —  air,  water,  land  ; 
structures  common  to  all  vertebrates. 

*  Life-processes  in  vertebrates  (Needham'sZ^/^j,  pp.  260- 

263). 

*  Examination  of  skeletons  of  frog,  turtle,  bird,  cat,  monkey, 
and  man.     Special  attention  should  be  directed  to  the  homol- 
ogies  of  the  limbs. 

*Homologies  among  vertebrates.  *Analogies.  (Illustrated 
by  preparations  and  lantern  slides.1) 

*Review  of  the  distinguishing  features  of  the  five  classes  of 
vertebrates.  *Evidences  of  relationships. 

Characteristics  of  the  phylum  Chordata.  *Primitive 
Chordates. 


1  Useful  lantern  slides  for  this  purpose  may  be  made  by  photograph- 
ing illustrations  in  various  books  on  evolution  named  in  Chapter  X. 


390  THE   TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

*Fossil  vertebrates  and  their  relation  to  living  types  (demon- 
strations at  museums). 

General  References  on  Vertebrates : — 

See  list  of  books  on  animal  natural  history  in  Chapter  X.  The 
books  marked  with  an  asterisk,  and  the  school-books  of  zoology  by 
Davenport,  Kellogg,  Jordan  and  Heath,  and  Kingsley,  contain  excellent 
material  for  reading  in  connection  with  study  of  common  vertebrates, 
especially  their  natural  history. 

*  Re  view  of  the  general  classification  of  animals.  Practical 
tests  of  pupils'  ability  to  recognize  representatives  of  important 
groups. 

*The  evidences  of  common  descent  of  animals  —  evolution. 
See  discussion  of  this  topic  in  Chapter  II. 

Application  of  the  general  principles  of  morphology  and 
physiology,  which  the  course  has  introduced,  to  the  structures 
The  Human  an<^  activities  of  the  human  body.  In  the  writer's 
Body>  opinion,  human  structure  and  functions  should  be 

carefully  discuss'ed  from  the  standpoint  of  the  work  on  the 
frog.  During  the  last  twenty  lessons  it  is  profitable  to  require 
supplementary  study  of  the  chapters  dealing  with  general 
nutrition  in  such  a  book  as  Martin's  Human  Body,  Briefer 
Course.  Likewise,  when  studying  skeletons  of  frog  or  other 
vertebrates  is  the  proper  time  to  examine  the  human  skeleton. 
Such  comparative  study  is  the  proper  human  physiology  for 
the  high  school,  and  is  far  more  useful  than  the  usual  study 
of  a  special  text-book.  For  discussion  of  this  and  allied  topics 
see  the  chapter  on  "  Teaching  Human  Physiology." 

Suggested  Modifications  of  the  Outline. 

The  outline  as  it  stands  represents  a  course  requiring  about 
five  hours  per  week  for  a  year  of  thirty-six  weeks.  In  Chapter 
V.  it  is  pointed  out  that  there  is  a  demand  for  a  half-year  of 
zoological  study  in  correlation  with  a  similar  amount  of 
botany.  For  such  a  short  course  in  zoology  the  following 
should  be  selected  for  presentation  along  the  lines  indicated 
in  the  preceding  outline.  First,  all  of  Division  A,  which 
presents  the  most  important  general  principles,  is  essential. 


OUTLINE   FOR  ELEMENTARY  COURSE        39 1 

This  would  leave  about  ten  weeks  to  be  devoted  to  brief  study 
of  a  few  representative  types,  such  as  Hydra,  earthworm,  snail 
and  clam,  and  vertebrates.  I  would  urge  that  six  or  seven  of 
these  weeks  should  be  given  to  the  general  zoology  of  the  frog, 
supplemented  with  a  general  survey  of  vertebrates,  and  special 
application  to  the  essentials  of  human  physiology. 

With  regard  to  the  suggestion  made  elsewhere  (Chapter  V.) 
that  a  general  biological  course  in  the  first  year  of  the  high 
school  may  be  supplemented  in  the  fourth  year  by  elective 
courses  in  botany  and  zoology,  each  extending  throughout 
the  year,  it  is  recommended  that  about  one-third  of  the  first- 
year  course  be  devoted  to  plant  study  with  special  reference 
to  life-activities,  and  the  other  two-thirds  of  the  time  used  for 
the  study  of  zoology,  emphasizing  general  morphological  and 
physiological  principles  with  direct  application  to  the  structure 
and  function  of  the  human  body.  The  botanical  part  of  such 
a  course  demands  materials  which  are  obtainable  in  autumn 
as  well  as  in  spring ;  and  in  my  opinion  there  is  an  important 
advantage  in  beginning  such  a  course  with  plant  study.  How- 
ever, whether  the  plant  precedes  or  follows  the  animal  study, 
correlation  of  the  studies  of  the  two  aspects  of  organic  life  is  the 
work  of  the  teacher  and  not  of  the  order  of  study ;  and  com- 
parisons regarding  the  fundamental  similarity  of  life-processes 
in  animals  and  plants  may  be  satisfactorily  reviewed  and  sum- 
marized in  the  final  weeks  of  the  course. 


CHAPTER   IX 

ZOOLOGICAL   MATERIALS,  METHODS,  AND   SPECIAL 
EQUIPMENT 

ANYTHING  approaching  complete  treatment  of  materials  for 
laboratory  work  in  zoology  and  the  appropriate  special  tech- 
nique would  require  a  volume,  and  this  attempt  to  deal  with 
the  subject  in  a  single  chapter  is  justified  only  in  that  some 
notes  on  materials  constitute  an  important  part  of  an  outline 
such  as  is  given  in  Chapter  VIII.  For  most  ordinary  methods 
of  dealing  with  materials  —  dissecting,  injecting,  preserving  — 
there  are  good  directions  in  text  and  appendices  of  many  of 
the  recent  books  for  high  schools,  particularly  those  by  Need- 
ham,  Kellogg,  Colton,  French,  Jordan  and  Price,  and  Harvey. 
All  these  the  teacher  should  have  for  general  reference.  There 
are  also  numerous  suggestions  in  all  the  laboratory  manuals 
named  in  the  chapter  on  "Zoological  Books,"  especially  in 
the  Practical  Zoology  by  the  Parkers  and  in  that  by  Marshall 
and  Hurst.  The  following  notes  do  not  attempt  to  review 
such  well-known  directions  for  dealing  with  zoological  mate- 
rials, and  it  is  possible  here  to  give  attention  only  to  some 
points  about  which  teachers  frequently  make  inquiries. 

i.    Special  Literature  on  Laboratory  Technique. 

The  beginner  with  the  microscope  will  find  Bausch's  little 
handbook  (published  by  Bausch  and  Lomb,  Rochester,  N.  Y.) 
an  excellent  guide  to  the  use  and  care  of  the  instrument.  The 
Books  on  same  firm  also  issues  a  smaller  pamphlet  on  "  The 
Microscope.  Use  of  the  Microscope  " ;  and  other  makers  of 
microscopes  supply  their  patrons  with  similar  pamphlets. 
Larger  works  by  Carpenter,  Beal,  and  others  are  to  be  found 
in  many  public  libraries. 

Directions  for  making  microscopical  preparations  are  indis- 


ZOOLOGICAL   MATERIALS  AND  METHODS    393 

pensable.  For  such  work  Clark's  Practical  Methods  in  Micro- 
scopy (Boston,  Heath,  $1.60)  gives  very  simple 
directions,  and  it  contains  much  other  useful  in-  Microscopical 
formation  about  the  use  of  the  microscope.  It  is 
especially  valuable  for  "amateur  microscopists."  Another  and 
one  of  the  very  best  books  in  this  line  for  the  beginning  teacher 
of  zoology  is  Gage's  The  Microscope  and  Microscopical  Methods 
(ninth  edition,  Comstock  Pub.  Co.,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  $1.50). 
This  is  good  on  general  methods  of  manipulating  the  micro- 
scope and  on  making  microscopic  preparations  of  animal  tissues. 
It  also  gives  hints  for  photo-microscopy  and  use  of  projection 
microscope.  Still  another  similar  book  is  Mell's  Biological 
Laboratory  Methods  (Macmillan).  One  who  has  already 
mastered  the  elementary  technique  of  making  microscopic 
preparations  as  presented  in  these  books  and  who  wishes  to 
practise  special  methods  will  need  Lee's  Microtomisf  s  Vade 
Mecum  (fifth  edition,  Blakiston,  Philadelphia,  $4).  There 
are  numerous  other  works  valuable  for  special  methods,  but 
the  above  are  best  for  the  general  worker. 

In  addition  to  these  special  books  there  are  brief  direc- 
tions for  making  preparations  in  many  general  text-books  deal- 
ing with  histology.  Stirling's  Practical  Histology  Brief  Direc- 
(Blakiston)  is  the  best  I  have  used.  Parker  and 
Parker's  Practical  Zoology  has  many  very  simple 
directions  for  study  and  preparation  of  tissues.  Nearly  all  the 
laboratory  guides  mentioned  in  the  chapter  on  "  Zoological 
Books "  give  notes  in  this  line. 

The  following  special  references  on  management  of  aquaria 
and  vivaria  are  useful  to  teachers :   Bateman's   The  Vivarium 
(London,  Gill,  $2.40)  ;  Samuel's  Amateur  Aquar-   Books  on 
w/(  New  York,  Baker  and  Taylor)  ;  special  chapters  A«uaria- 
in  Furneaux's  Life  in  Ponds  and  Streams  (Longmans)  ;  Bate- 
man's Freshwater  Aquaria  (Gill),  and  a  more  extensive  work, 
The  Book  of  Aquaria,  by  Bateman  and  Bennett  (same  pub- 
lishers) ;  Murbach  on  fresh-water  aquaria  in  American  Natu- 
ralist,  Vol.  XXXIV.,  p.   203;    and    Wilder  in   Journal  of 


394  THE   TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

Applied  Microscopy,  Vol.  II.,  July,  1899.     Personally,  I  prefer 
the  books  by  Bateman. 

The  following  journals  are  sources  of  notes  on  methods,  and 
the  first  two  are  quite  indispensable.  Journal  of  Applied 
journals  deal-  Microscopy  and  Laboratory  Methods  (six  volumes 
Materials  and  published;  discontinued  in  December,  1903); 
Methods.  School  Science,  Chicago,  $2  per  year;  and  the 
more  expensive  Journal  of  Royal  Microscopical  Society,  London, 
which  is  on  file  in  most  college  laboratories. 

2.   Materials  for  a  Course  in  General  Zoology. 

Protozoa. 

The  amceba  causes  zoology  teachers  more  trouble  than  any 
other  animal  which  is  commonly  used.  Numerous  "  sure  " 
methods  of  obtaining  cultures  are  recommended, 
but  failure  is  common.  Masses  of  green-felt 
(Oscillaria)  growing  on  bottom  of  quiet  pools  are  likely  to 
contain  amoebas.  Carefully  collect  and  place  in  shallow 
dishes,  such  as  soup  plates  or  crystallizing  dishes,  several 
weeks  before  needed.  The  slime  on  water-plants  is  another 
source  of  the  material,  and  I  have  frequently  found  them 
abundant  on  the  roots  of  duckweed  growing  in  aquaria. 
Practically  all  the  successful  methods  of  cultivating  amoebas 
in  the  laboratory  depend  upon  the  development  of  bacteria 
on  which  they  feed.  Some  Paramcecium  cultures  (see  below), 
with  hay  decaying  in  the  water,  should  be  kept  until  one  year 
old,  for  amcebas  often  appear  in  vast  numbers  many  months 
after  Paramcecium  disappears.  Decaying  water-plants,  such 
as  lily  leaves  or  duckweed,  or  animals,  such  as  fresh-water 
mussels,  favor  the  development  of  bacteria.  Such  cultures 
should  be  started  in  the  early  spring  or  summer  for  use  in  the 
autumn.  Simply  fill  several  battery-jars  with  water  and  add 
chopped  hay  and  some  decaying  water-plants  from  aquaria 
and  ponds.  It  is  only  necessary  to  add  water  occasionally  in 
order  to  make  up  for  evaporation,  and  this  may  be  largely 
prevented  by  covering  the  jars  with  plates  of  glass. 


ZOOLOGICAL  MATERIALS  AND  METHODS    395 

For  ciliated  protozoa,  such  as  Paramcecium,  Stylonichia, 
Vorticella,  and  Stentor,  the  most  convenient  artificial  culture- 
medium  is  an  infusion  of  hay  in  which  bacteria  cattm-egof 
develop.  In  preparing  the  infusion,  pour  warm  Ciliates. 
water  over  a  small  mass  of  chopped  hay,  and  after  twenty-four 
hours  transfer  both  hay  and  infusion  into  a  glass  battery-jar 
and  add  some  water  and  decaying  sticks  and  leaves  taken  from 
various  ponds  in  which  Protozoa  are  commonly  found.  It  is 
well  to  distribute  the  infusion  into  several  small  vessels,  such 
as  ordinary  glass  tumblers,  and  to  place  in  them  sticks  and 
leaves  from  different  ponds.  Within  three  or  four  weeks  the 
infusion  will  probably  develop  infusoria,  especially  Paramce- 
cium, in  great  numbers,  and  they  will  collect  in  the  bacterial 
scum  on  the  surface  or  around  the  periphery  of  the  dish  from 
which  they  are  easily  collected  by  a  pipette. 

When  a  culture  is  once  obtained,  it  is  advisable  to  start  a 
new  culture  fortnightly  by  transferring  some  of  the   Kew 
surface  scum  to  hay  infusion  which  is  a  day  old.        Cultures. 

Another  method  is  to  collect  decaying  sticks  and  leaves  and 
add  water  from  ponds,  place  in  battery-jars,  and  allow  to  stand 
for  some  weeks,  when  infusoria  of  various  kinds  4notner 
will  doubtless  be  abundant.  If  a  quantity  of  pond  Method- 
water,  together  with  an  abundance  of  leaves  and  water-plants, 
be  placed  in  a  glass  dish,  it  will  often  be  found  just  as  putre- 
faction sets  in  that  vorticellas  are  present  in  great  numbers  in 
the  surface  scum.  They  may  also  appear  after  Paramoecium 
in  the  hay  infusion.  Some  aquaria  in  which  infusoria  appear 
should  be  kept  until  the  following  year,  for  in  this  way  some 
excellent  cultures  of  amcebas,  stentors,  and  other  forms  are 
often  obtained  in  the  second  year. 

In  some  parts  of  this  country  the  specific  gravity  of  Para- 
mcecium is  such  that  they  will  quickly  rise  to  the  surface  of  a 
body  of  water,  and  advantage  may  be  taken  of  this 

tendency  in  order  to  concentrate  the  animals.     A  Concentrating 
.  .  -,...,.  ,    A        Paramoecium. 

glass    tube   one-fourth  inch   in  diameter  and   ten 

inches  long,  sealed  at  one  end  and  supported  vertically,  is 


396  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

filled  with  fluid  taken  from  the  surface  of  a  culture  dish  and 
after  a  short  time  most  of  the  animals  will  have  risen  to  the 
surface.  In  this  way  the  animals  in  many  cubic  centimetres 
of  fluid  can  be  concentrated  into  a  single  drop.  I  have  had 
success  with  this  method  at  Chicago,  but  at  Boston  the  specific 
gravity  of  the  Paramoecium  is  apparently  so  nearly  that  of 
water  that  they  do  not  collect  at  the  surface.  The  method  is 
well  worth  the  trial  in  other  localities. 

In  order  to  restrain  the  movements  of  active  infusoria,  such 
as  Paramoecium,  a  thick  solution  of  gelatine  is  commonly  used. 
Restraining  A  sheet  of  gelatine  should  be  soaked  for  several 
Movements,  hours  in  water,  then  removed  and  melted  in  a 
glass  beaker  or  evaporating  dish.  When  cooled  to  the  tem- 
perature of  the  laboratory,  it  should  have  the  consistency  of 
thick  mucilage.  If  too  solid  when  cooled,  add  water  and 
remelt.  The  correct  proportions  are  about  three  grams  of 
gelatine  to  one  hundred  cubic  centimetres  of  water.  A  ring 
of  this  semi-fluid  gelatine  is  made  on  the  microscopic  slide,  a 
small  drop  of  the  fluid  containing  the  infusoria  is  then  placed 
inside  the  ring  and  the  cover-glass  gently  lowered  into  position. 
If  the  gelatine  is  of  the  proper  consistency,  the  movements  of 
the  animals  will  soon  be  retarded  sufficiently  for  study  even 
with  the  high-power  objective.  The  animals  do  not  live  long 
in  the  gelatine  and  new  preparations  must  be  made  several 
times  hourly. 

The  method  of  ingesting  food  in  ciliated  forms  may  be. 
demonstrated  by  placing  the  animals  in  water  in  which  some 
ingestionof  finely  powdered  carmine  is  suspended.  Murbach 
Food.  (School  Science,  Vol.  I.,  p.  36)  uses  water-color 

carmine  such  as  artists  use,  rubbing  a  small  piece  in  a  drop  of 
water  and  then  adding  the  animals. 

Intra-vitam  staining  often  gives  very  interesting  results  with 
Paramcecium.  Place  the  animals  in  a  drop  of  aqueous  solution 
Intra-vitam  °f  methylene-blue  so  dilute  that  little  of  the  blue 
Staining.  color  appears;  i  :  10000  is  the  best  proportion 
of  water  and  dry  dye.  The  color  will  be  slowly  taken  up  by 


ZOOLOGICAL   MATERIALS  AND  METHODS    397 

the  nucleus.     Dahlia,  malachite  green,  and  other  anilines  may 
be  used  in  the  same  way. 

For  staining  infusoria  certain  aniline  dyes  are  combined  with 
a  killing  reagent.     For  general  purposes   dissolve  methylene 
green  to  one  per  cent  acetic  acid  in  water.     Draw  stain  for 
this  under  the  cover-glass  with  a  bit  of  absorbing  infusoria, 
paper. 

C&lenterates. 

Specimens  of  marine  forms,  such  as  corals,  sea-anemones, 
medusae,  and  ctenophores  may  be  purchased  from   Marine 
dealers  (see  list  on  page  414).  Forms. 

Hydra,  which  is  by  far  the  most  important  ccelenterate  for 
high-school  work,  is  regarded  by  most  teachers  as  rather  diffi- 
cult to  manage,  and  for  this  reason  a  rather  full  Hydra  Col- 
account  of  methods  follows.  Two  species  are  lectins- 
common,  the  brown  hydra  (H.  fusca)  and  the  green  hydra 
(H.  viridis)  ;  but  the  latter  is  the  most  widely  distributed. 
The  brown  hydra  is  usually  found  only  in  permanent  streams 
and  ponds,  but  the  green  species  is  also  common  in  temporary 
pools  which  are  dry  during  the  midsummer  season  of  drought. 
Unless  hydras  are  to  be  used  early  in  the  school-year,  it  is 
usually  best  to  collect  them  for  stocking  aquaria  late  in  the 
autumn  after  the  summer  heat  is  over  and  the  water  in  shallow 
pools  has  become  quite  cold.  At  such  a  time  the  animals 
appear  in  great  abundance  in  many  ponds  where  they  are  rare 
in  midsummer,  and  also  in  temporary  pools  which  are  dry 
during  the  summer  season.  They  are  usually  found  attached 
to  submerged  objects,  such  as  stones,  sticks,  living  and  dead 
water-plants,  and  decaying  leaves  of  deciduous  trees.  In 
examining  such  objects  in  search  for  the  animals,  a  hand-lens 
is  useful  for  certain  identification  of  any  organism  which  to  the 
unaided  eye  may  resemble  a  hydra ;  or  these  objects  may  be 
placed  in  a  small  jar  of  clear  water  in  which  hydras  will  quickly 
expand  so  as  to  be  seen  easily.  If  hydras  are  found,  a 
quantity  of  the  materials  to  which  they  are  attached  should 


398  THE   TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

be  collected,  carried  in  water  to  the  laboratory,  and  placed 
in  a  glass  vessel  (battery-jar  or  fruit-jar).  Under  the  in- 
fluence of  diffused  light  the  hydras  will  migrate  to  the  sides  of 
the  vessel. 

The  hardy  green  hydras  may  often  be  collected  even  in 
midwinter  by  cutting  holes  in  the  ice  and  collecting  some  of 
Collecting  in  tne  submerged  objects,  such  as  dead  leaves  and 
Winter.  filamentous  algae.  The  writer  has  found  as  many 

as  a  hundred  hydras  on  a  single  oak  leaf  taken  from  beneath 
six  inches  of  ice.  In  the  case  of  green  hydras  on  algae,  the 
animals  are  not  easily  seen  until  they  have  migrated  to  the 
wall  of  a  glass  aquarium. 

Another  method  of  obtaining  an  abundance  of  green  hydras 
consists  in  taking  advantage  of  the  fact  that  in  the  midsummer 
Encysted  season  of  drought  numerous  encysted  eggs  lie 
Eg8:s'  embedded  in  the  dry  soil  on  the  bottom  of  tem- 

porary pools.  Soil  collected  from  such  places  where  hydras 
are  known  or  supposed  to  exist  when  water  is  present,  may  be 
stored  in  the  dry  condition  for  months ;  and  when  placed  in 
water  in  a  glass  or  earthen  vessel  and  covered  with  a  glass 
plate  the  eggs  will  develop,  the  animals  appearing  first  on  the 
surface  of  mud  and  thence  migrating  to  the  sides  of  the  vessel. 
If  hydras  do  appear,  the  aquarium  should  be  supplied  with 
green  plants  and  small  entomostracan  crustaceans. 

A  glass  battery-jar  (four  by  five  or  six  by  eight  inches),  or 
a  common  fruit-jar,  are  convenient  vessels  in  which  to  keep 
Aquarium  for  hydras.  It  is  better  to  use  several  small  jars  in- 
Hydras.  stead  of  one  large  one,  since  the  danger  of  a  com- 

plete failure  is  thus  lessened  by  the  possibility  of  variable 
conditions.  The  jars  should  be  kept  loosely  covered  with 
plates  of  glass,  which  not  only  prevents  rapid  evaporation,  but 
also  largely  checks  the  development  of  bacterial  scums,  which 
are  so  unfavorable  to  the  hydras  that  success  with  the  aqua- 
rium largely  depends  upon  preventing  extensive  growth  of 
bacteria.  Substances,  such  as  grasses  from  temporary  pools, 
which  are  likely  to  undergo  decay  should  be  excluded  from 


ZOOLOGICAL    MATERIALS  AND   METHODS    399 

the  aquarium.  Hydras  collected  on  green  aquatic  plants  are 
easily  kept  so  long  as  the  plants  are  in  good  condition.  After 
the  animals  have  migrated  to  the  sides  of  the  aquarium  fresh 
plants  may  be  supplied  from  time  to  time.  The  writer  has 
also  had  success  with  green  hydras  found  adhering  to  dead 
leaves  of  oak,  elm,  and  maple.  These  leaves  are  favorable 
for  small  entomostracan  Crustacea  which  serve  as  food  for 
the  hydras,  but  do  not  favor  the  extensive  development  of 
bacteria,  and  a  dozen  placed  in  two  or  three  litres  of  water  in 
a  covered  vessel  will  be  sufficient  for  hundreds  of  hydras.  The 
presence  of  a  few  green  plants  will  do  no  harm,  but  in  the  case 
of  the  green  hydras  are  unnecessary  since  symbiotic  algae 
maintain  the  physiological  balance.  Usually  some  of  the  lower 
algae  will  develop  on  the  sides  of  the  aquarium  and  assist  in 
maintaining  the  balance. 

Snails,  which  are  so  useful  in  the  aquarium  for  larger  animals, 
must  be  excluded  from  those  in  which  hydras  are 
to  be  kept,  since  they  feed  upon  the  animals. 

Running  water  is  not  necessary,  but  the  water  should  be 
changed  by  means  of  a  syphon  whenever  there  is  any  turbidity 
or  development  of  bacterial  scum.     Rain  water  or  changing 
that  taken  from  the  ponds  where  the  animals  are   Water- 
collected  is  best,  but  the  animals  may  be  accustomed  to  the 
hydrant  water  in  most  cities  by  gradually  adding  it  to  the 
water  in  which  the  animals  lived  originally.     This  precaution 
in  changing  water  is  more  necessary  in  case   of  the  brown 
species ;  the  green  ones  may  usually  be  directly  transferred  to 
hydrant  water. 

The  writer  has  made  some  observations  which  suggest  that 
brown  hydras  and  undoubtedly  green  ones  would  live  well  in 
an  aquarium  if  the  temperature  could  be  kept 
between  40°  and  50°  F.,  which  is  not  favorable 
to  excessive  bacterial  growth.  Near  a  window  in  a  basement 
with  temperature  slightly  above  freezing  would  be  best. 

Owing  to  great  contractility,  hydras  must  be  killed  with  rapid 
fixing  agents,  such  as  solutions  containing  corrosive  sublimate. 


400  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

Water  containing  one  per  cent  of  acetic  acid  and  saturated 
with  corrosive  sublimate  is  very  successful  for  general  work. 
A  few  hydras  should  be  placed  in  a  small  watch- 
Preserving  crystal  half  full  of  water  and  allowed  to  expand. 
Then  quickly  pour  into  the  crystal  enough  of  the 
sublimate  solution  to  fill  it  completely  and  allow  it  to  stand  five 
minutes.  Then,  with  a  wide-mouthed  pipette  (in  transferring 
these  delicate  animals  from  one  fluid  to  another  they  must  not 
at  any  time  be  lifted  out  of  the  fluid,  because  they  will  very 
likely  collapse)  remove  the  hydra  to  fifty  per  cent  alcohol  and 
then  in  ten  minutes  to  seventy  per  cent  alcohol.  The  subli- 
mate should  then  be  washed  out  by  changing  the  alcohol  several 
times.  Preserve  in  ninety  per  cent  alcohol  until  animals  are 
wanted  for  further  preparation,  either  in  sections  or  entire. 

Mounting  hydras  entire  may  be  accomplished  as  follows : 
Transfer  through  successive  grades  of  alcohol  to  water  and 
Mounting  stain  for  one  hour  in  Delafield's  hsematoxylin 
Entire.  diluted  ten  times,  or  for  twelve  hours  in  alum 

carmine  diluted  ten  times.  Then  dehydrate,  clear  in  cedar 
oil  or  turpentine,  and  mount  in  xylol  balsam. 

If  it  is  desired   to   make   sections  of  hydra,  they  should 

be  dehydrated,  cleared  in  turpentine,  embedded  in  paraffin, 

sectioned,    sections   mounted,    paraffin    removed, 

and    stained  on  the   slide  with  dilute  Delafield's 

haematoxylin  or  iron-haemotoxylin.     They  may  be  stained  in 

borax-carmine  before  sectioning. 

Earthworm?- 

Large  specimens  of  Lumbricus  terrestris  are  often  found  in 
the  soil  of  gardens,  lawns,  etc.,  but  they  are  not  everywhere  as 
Common  common  as  the  smaller  Allolobophora  mucosa, 
Species.  which  is  not  so  favorable  for  laboratory  work  in 

the  line  of  anatomical  study,  but  it  may  serve  for  study  of  the 


1  References  —  Sedgwick  and  Wilson's    General  Biology,  appendix. 
Darwin's  Earthworm. 


ZOOLOGICAL   MATERIALS  AND  METHODS     401 

living  animal.  The  striped  earthworm  (L.  fcetidus  or  Allolo- 
bophora  foetidus)  lives  in  and  near  heaps  of  manure. 

The  worms  may  be  collected  by  digging  the  soil  in  places 
where  "castings"  from  the  earthworm's  intestine  are  to  be 

found  on  the  surface,  especially  under  stones  and 

....  i  .      r  i  •          •        u      Collecting, 

timbers  which  have   lam   for  a  long  time  in  the 

same  place.  The  worms  are  abundant  on  well-manured  lawns, 
where  digging  is  impossible  ;  but  they  may  be  taken  by  quietly 
searching  with  a  lantern  at  night,  when  they  frequently  lie  out 
of  their  burrows.  Most  satisfactory  of  all  methods  is  to  collect 
during  or  just  after  heavy  rains  in  spring  and  summer,  and 
keep  the  worms  in  vivaria  until  wanted. 

A    rich  soil  containing  much   decaying  organic    matter   is 
most  suitable  in  vivaria  for  these  animals.     If  obtained  from 

localities  where  large  earthworms  abound,  success 

™,  .,     ,       .  ,  ,       Vivarium, 

with  the  vivarium  is  certain.      Ihe  soil  should  be 

placed  in  a  wooden  box  and  covered  with  a  layer  of  grassy 
sod  which  is  to  be  kept  damp  (not  wet)  by  occasional  sprink- 
ling with  water.  Some  sort  of  a  cover  for  preventing  evapo- 
ration is  important  if  the  box  is  to  be  kept  in  the  dry 
atmosphere  of  the  laboratory.  It  is  much  better  to  keep  the 
earthworms  in  a  cool,  damp  place  in  the  cellar  or  basement, 
removing  the  vivarium  to  the  laboratory  when  observations  are 
to  be  made  by  the  class.  Bits  of  potato  or  apple  or  leaves 
should  be  left  on  the  surface  of  the  soil  to  serve  as  food  for  the 
worms.  It  is  interesting  to  have  one  vivarium  in  which  the 
sod  covers  not  more  than  one-half  the  surface,  the  remainder 
being  composed  of  fine  soil  carefully  levelled.  Under  these 
conditions  the  burrows  and  the  "castings"  can  be  easily  seen. 
Living  worms  intended  for  preservation  should  first  be 
washed  and  then  placed  in  a  shallow  vessel  containing  enough 

water  to  cover  them.     Alcohol  (commercial  ninety- 
£  j-i       j\  •      u  j       Preserving, 

five  per  cent,  or  diluted)  is  then  added  so  gradu- 
ally that  the  worms  are  not  stimulated  into  violent  contractions, 
but  are  slowly  stupefied.     The  alcohol  may  from  time  to  time 
be  sprayed  over  the  surface  of  the  water ;  but  a  more  conven- 

26 


402  THE   TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

lent  way  is  to  place  a  sponge  or  wad  of  cotton  in  the  centre  of 
the  dish  and  pour  upon  it  the  alcohol,  which  will  gradually 
diffuse  through  the  surrounding  water.  The  vessel  should  be 
kept  covered.  The  worms  are  often  found  stupefied  after  two 
to  four  hours ;  a  few  worms  may  be  tested  by  removing  them 
to  fifty  per  cent  alcohol,  and  if  violent  contractions  do  not 
ensue,  all  the  worms  may  be  removed  to  alcohol  of  this 
strength.  As  soon  as  movements  cease,  the  worms  should 
be  carefully  straightened  out  and  placed  side  by  side  in  a 
shallow  dish  with  enough  fifty  per  cent  alcohol  to  cover  them. 
A  shallow  rectangular  dish  is  preferable  for  this  purpose.  The 
animals  may  be  kept  from  one  to  four  hours  in  fifty  per  cent 
alcohol,  and  then  this  should  be  drained  off,  seventy  per  cent 
alcohol  should  be  added  and  changed  after  a  few  hours. 
After  ten  to  twenty  hours  in  this  alcohol  the  animals  may  be 
placed  for  permanent  preservation  in  a  liberal  quantity  of  ninety 
per  cent  alcohol,  or,  preferably,  in  a  solution  of  commercial 
formalin  four  parts  and  water  ninety-six  parts.  The  worms 
should  be  kept  straight,  either  by  lying  horizontally  in  wide 
jars,  or  glass  cylinders  which  stand  vertically  may  be  used,  the 
worms  being  inserted  while  the  cylinder  lies  almost  horizontally 
and  packed  so  closely  with  cotton  that  bending  is  prevented 
when  the  jar  is  placed  upright  and  filled  with  preserving  liquid. 
Worms  preserved  in  alcohol  as  described  in  above  paragraph 
may  be  used  for  microscopic  preparations  as  well  as  for  dis- 
sections ;  out  if  sections  are  to  be  cut  through  the 
alimentary  canal,  it  is  necessary  to  free  that  struc- 
ture from  soil  before  killing  the  animals.  The  worms  should 
be  washed  and  placed  in  a  wide  jar  with  a  quantity  of  shreds 
of  moistened  filter-paper,  which  should  be  removed  and  washed 
daily.  The  moist  paper  is  eaten  by  the  worms  and  passing 
through  the  intestine  it  removes  the  particles  of  soil.  Some 
of  the  paper  remaining  in  the  alimentary  canal  often  renders 
sectioning  very  difficult.  Sometimes  the  worms  will  eat  apples, 
potato,  and  lettuce,  and  these  may  be  used  in  place  of  filter- 
paper.  Some  zoologists  state  that  the  intestine  may  be  very 


ZOOLOGICAL   MATERIALS  AND   METHODS     403 

satisfactorily  cleaned  by  inserting  a  slender  pipette  into  the 
mouth  or  anus  and  gently  forcing  a  stream  of  water  through 
the  intestine.  It  has  also  been  recommended  that  the  intestine 
of  the  earthworm  be  cleaned  by  placing  the  animals  in  a  box 
filled  with  cleaned  sphagnum  moss  upon  which  the  animals 
will  feed.  The  box  must  be  kept  covered  and  the  moss  moist. 
After  a  few  weeks,  the  intestine  will  be  free  from  soil,  and  the 
animals  ready  for  preservation. 

The  best  histological  preservation  is  obtained  by  suddenly 
plunging  the  animals  into  some  strong  killing  fluid,  but  this 
usually  results  in  more  or  less  distortion  of  the  general  form 
of  the  body.  To  avoid  such  distortion  it  is  best  to  stupefy 
with  alcohol  before  plunging  into  the  fixing  fluid.  Kleinen- 
berg's  strong  picro-sulphuric  and  solutions  with  corrosive 
sublimate  are  recommended.  After  the  worms  have  been  in 
the  fluid  ten  minutes  it  is  well  to  cut  them  into  pieces  one- 
half  inch  long  and  leave  one  hour  longer  before  washing  with 
seventy  per  cent  alcohol. 

The  following  are  the  most  useful  preparations  for  micro- 
scopic examination :  transverse  section  through  intestinal 
region,  sagittal  section  through  first  ten  to  twenty  segments, 
ovary  mounted  entire,  cuticle.  (See  Sedgwick  &  Wilson's 
General  Biology?) 

It  is  customary  to  pin  worms  to  the  wax  in  the  bottom  of  a 
dissecting  pan ;  but  for  convenience  in  preserving  dissections 

which    cannot    be    completed    in    one    laboratory 

.     ,       .  '  •          f  Dissection, 

period,   the    worms    may  be  pinned    to  strips  of 

cork,  soft  wood,  or  cork-carpet.  These  strips  can  be  placed 
in  a  pan  while  dissection  is  in  progress,  and  during  intervals 
removed  to  jars  of  preserving  fluid  —  commercial  formalin 
two  parts  in  water  one  hundred  parts  will  answer  this  purpose. 
Pieces  of  sheet  lead  may  be  used  to  keep  the  cork  from  float- 
ing in  the  water  which  fills  the  dissecting  pan,  or  the  strips 
may  be  pinned  to  the  wax  or  pinning  board  of  the  pan.  A 
convenient  size  for  cork  strips  is  about  one  and  one-half  by  seven 
inches  and  one-fourth  inch  in  thickness.  They  will  cost  very 


404  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

little  when  cut  from  "  remnants  "  of  cork-carpet  obtainable 
from  carpet  stores. 

Crustacea. 

Lower  entomostracea,  such  as  Daphnia  and  Cyclops,  are 
usually  abundant  in  ponds  and  may  be  kept  in  aquaria  without 
Lower  special  attention.  In  very  early  spring,  pond  water 

Crustacea.  usually  teems  with  cladocerans,  copepods,  and 
ostracods.  This  is  also  the  time  to  look  for  the  fairy  shrimp, 
Branchipus.  A  dip-net  made  of  cheese-cloth  is  best  for 
catching  all  these  lower  crustaceans. 

Many  amphipods  are  common  in  fresh-water  ponds  and 
may  be  kept  in  aquaria  with  green  plants.  Among  isopods, 
Amphipods  t'ie  common  sow-bug  (Oniscus)  and  the  pill-bug 
and  isopods.  (Armadillidum)  are  common  under  stones  and 
rotten  logs  which  have  lain  for  a  long  time  in  one  place. 
They  are  easily  kept  in  any  jar  from  which  light  is  excluded 
(e .  g.y  a  battery-jar  covered  with  dark  paper) .  It  is  only 
necessary  to  put  in  some  pieces  of  decaying  wood,  keep  these 
moist  (not  wet)  and  occasionally  pieces  of  bread  and  meat 
for  food.  Our  common  myriapods  found  in  the  same  places 
may  be  kept  in  the  same  vivarium.  The  Asellus,  an  isopod 
living  in  ponds,  is  frequently  abundant  in  masses  of  water- 
plants  collected  for  the  aquaria. 

Among  the  decapods,  the  crayfishes  are  most  important 
because  they  are  so  easily  kept  alive  in  the  schoolroom. 
Crayfish  These  crustaceans  which  are  common  in  the  prin- 
Coliecting.  cipal  North  American  river  systems,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  New  England,  are  frequently  to  be  found  under 
stones  in  shallow  clear  water  where  they  are  easily  captured 
with  a  strong  dip-net.  Sometimes  they  may  be  taken  in 
minnow  seines  which  are  heavily  weighted  so  as  to  drag  on 
the  bottom.  They  are  also  often  captured  in  traps  made  of 
wire  netting  arranged  so  that  the  animals  may  be  led  by  bait 
into  a  cage  through  a  cone-shaped  entrance  whose  inner 
opening  is  not  over  two  inches  in  diameter  and  as  far  as 


ZOOLOGICAL   MATERIALS  AND  METHODS     405 

possible  above  the  floor  of  the  cage.     Any  meat  or  fish  serves 
as  bait. 

Crayfish  may  be  purchased  in  the  markets  of  large  cities 
during  September  and  sometimes  even  later.     In  New  York 
they  usually  cost  $3   or  $4  per  hundred,  but  in 
Chicago  they  frequently  sell  for  $i  per  hundred  at 
the  market  of  Booth  &Co.,  State  and  Lake  Streets.    Dealers 
in  zoological  supplies  named  on  page  414  furnish  them  both 
living  and  preserved  at  all  seasons ;  but  of  course  prices  must 
be  higher  than  those  above. 

A  good  cheap  aquarium  for  crayfish  is  any  shallow  pan 
made  of  galvanized  iron,  such  as  the  common  metal  wash- 
tubs;  or  a  wooden  water- tight  box  will  answer  the  crayfish  in 
purpose.  The  bottom  may  be  covered  with  sand  Mnaria. 
or  gravel ;  and  flat  stones  or  broken  pottery  placed  so  as  to 
form  retreats  for  the  animals.  Unless  running  water  can  be 
had,  it  is  important  that  the  water  be  shallow  —  not  deeper 
than  enough  to  cover  the  animals.  Keep  in  a  cool  place 
(e.  g.,  in  cellar)  except  when  wanted  for  study.  Twenty-five  of 
the  animals  can  be  kept  in  a  pan  sixteen  by  eighteen  inches, 
which  should  be  divided  by  at  least  one  movable  partition. 
The  water  need  not  be  changed  more  than  three  times  a  week, 
unless  some  of  the  animals  die  and  foul  the  water.  The  cray- 
fishes rarely  eat  during  the  winter  months,  but  occasionally 
they  may  eat  green  water-plants,  carrots,  small  pieces  of  meat, 
and  earthworm.  Rejected  food  must  not  be  allowed  to  decay 
in  the  aquarium.  The  animals  can  easily  be  kept  alive  from 
September  until  June,  thus  obviating  the  necessity  of  using 
preserved  material,  which  in  the  case  of  all  large  Crustacea  is 
at  best  very  unsatisfactory. 

The  animals  may  be  anaesthetized  by  means  of  chloroform. 
Preserve    in    ninety    per   cent    alcohol.      With    a   preserving 
syringe   or  rubber-bulbed   pipette  alcohol    should   Crayfish, 
be  injected  into  mouth  and  anus,  and  also  into  an  opening 
made  in   the   carapace.     It   is  also    advisable    to    insert    the 
needle  of  a  hypodermic  syringe  and  inject  alcohol  beneath  the 


406  THE   TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

posterior  edge  of  the  carapace  and  also  through  the  soft  ab- 
dominal sterna  into  the  ventral  blood-sinus.  Formaldehyde 
does  not  preserve  well  unless  the  organs  are  well  exposed  by 
cutting  away  parts  of  the  exoskeleton.  It  also  has  the  dis- 
advantage of  decalcifying  the  calcareous  structures.  It  is 
recommended  that  crayfish  be  kept  alive  until  wanted  for 
study  when  they  may  be  chloroformed  and  the  dissection 
begun  on  the  fresh  material.  One  per  cent  commercial 
formaldehyde  in  water  will  preserve  the  partially  dissected 
animals  for  several  weeks  if  they  are  immersed  in  the  solution 
during  the  intervals  between  laboratory  periods. 

The  European  Edible  Snail. 

The  European  edible  snails  (Helix  pomatia)  are  now  regu- 
larly imported  from  France  and  Germany,  and  may  be  found 
in  the  provision  markets  of  the  large  cities  during  the  cooler 
months,  /.  e.,  from  about  October  15  to  April  i.  In  New 
York  they  may  be  ordered  from  C.  Perceval,  dealer  in  table 
delicacies  and  fine  provisions,  100  Sixth  Avenue.  They  usually 
cost  about  $1.50  per  hundred.  The  Brooklyn  Biological 
Supply  Co.,  333  Halsey  Street,  Brooklyn,  supplies  them  in 
small  quantities.  Less  than  two  dozen  in  a  package  may  be 
sent  by  mail. 

These  snails  are  brought  from  Europe  in  the  dormant  or 
winter  condition,  the  aperture  of  the  shell  being  sealed  by  the 
temporary  plate  (epiphragm)  of  calcified  mucus.  In  this 
condition  they  may  be  packed,  shipped,  and  stored  for  months 
in  dry  sawdust  or  "  excelsior."  The  snails  may  be  purchased 
in  autumn  and  the  stock  kept  in  some  cool,  dry  place  until 
they  are  wanted  for  class  study,  perhaps  in  late  spring.  When 
active  snails  are  needed,  it  is  only  necessary  to  put  them  in  a 
warm,  wet  place  on  grassy  sod,  moss,  sand,  or  sawdust ;  under 
the  influence  of  the  moisture  the  epiphragm  soon  softens  and 
the  head  and  foot  emerge  from  the  shell.  The  emergence 
may  be  hastened  by  first  removing  the  epiphragm. 

The  active  snails  may  be  kept  so  for  months  in  a  simple 


ZOOLOGICAL   MATERIALS  AND  METHODS     407 

vivarium,  which  consists  of  a  shallow  box  or  bucket  covered 
with  coarse  wire  netting  and  having  the  bottom  covered  with 
grassy  sod  or  coarse  sand.  I  prefer  the  sand,  because  it  may 
be  washed  in  running  water  occasionally,  which  is  desirable  in 
case  the  vivarium  is  kept  in  the  schoolroom.  The  snails  may 
be  fed  with  lettuce,  cabbage,  and  other  vegetables. 

Perhaps  the  most  convenient  way  to  handle  the  living  snail 
in  the  class  room  is  to  allow  it  to  crawl  on  a  plate  of  glass  to 
which  the  foot  soon  firmly  adheres.  All  external  parts  and 
movements  are  then  easily  seen  from  any  desired  point  of 
view.  Lettuce  leaves  may  be  placed  near  the  mouth  and  the 
process  of  feeding  observed  through  the  glass ;  and  in  the  same 
way  the  remarkable  muscular  movements  of  the  foot  may  be 
seen.  If  the  snails  are  sluggish  when  wanted  for  class  study, 
stimulate  them  by  repeated  dipping  into  lukewarm  water. 
(From  note  in  School  Science,  January,  1903.) 

Insects. 

There  are  so  many  good  directions  for  collecting  and  rear- 
ing insects  that  I  shall  simply  refer  to  some  of  the  best  sources 
of  information.     Needham's  Elements  of  Zoology, 
Comstock's    Insect  Life,    Colton's    Zoology    (new  References- 
edition),  all  give  good  directions  for   insect  work.     In  fact, 
almost  every  book  dealing  with  insects  (see  list  in  Chapter  X.) 
gives  notes  on  collecting,  preserving,  mounting,  and  rearing 
larvae.     In   addition   a  bulletin  of  the   National  Museum  by 
Riley  is  very  valuable  (Part  F,  Bull.  39,  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.) 

Some  insects  may  be  preserved  in  commercial  formalin  two 
parts  and  water  ninety-eight   parts.     Grain  or  ethyl  alcohol 
is  best  for  others.     Grasshoppers  preserve  well  in   preserving 
wood  or   methyl  alcohol.     Various   mixtures   are   Fluids- 
recommended  by  Riley  in  the  bulletin  cited  above.     In  gen- 
eral, the  formalin  is  best  for  museum  specimens  such  as  are 
wanted  in  high  schools.     In  some  cases  the  addition  of  a  small 
quantity  of  baking  soda  to  the  formalin  tends  to  better  preserva- 
tion of  colors. 


408  THE   TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

Vertebrates. 

In  general,  all  vertebrates  intended  for  museum  purposes  or 
dissection  are   best    preserved   in   a   solution    of  commercial 
formalin  four  or  five  parts  in  one  hundred  parts  of 
water.     The  body-cavity  should  be  opened  to  allow 
rapid  penetration  of  the  preservative.     This   should   also  be 
injected  into  mouth  and  anus  (using  a  large  rubber-bulbed 
pipette).     Formalin  causes  swelling  in  some  cases  (e.g.,  ovi- 
ducts of  frog),  and  then  alcohol  may  be  more  desirable. 
All  vertebrate  tissue  require  special  methods  for  microscopi- 
cal work  (see  books  named  on  the  first  pages  of 
Tissues.  ..      , 

this  chapter). 

The  preparation  of  dry  museum  specimens  of  vertebrates  is 
Museum  we^  treated  in  Rowley's  Art  of  Taxidermy  (Ap- 

Specimens.  pletons,  $2),  and  in  the  practical  part  of  Colton's 
new  Zoology. 

Formaldehyde  is  an  excellent  permanent  preservative  for 
eggs  and  embryos  which  are  to  be  used  for  study  without 
Amphibian  sectioning.  The  segmenting  eggs  or  early  embryos 
Eggs*  surrounded  by  the  jelly  should  be  placed  directly 

in  a  mixture  of  commercial  formalin  four  or  five  parts  in  one 
hundred  parts  of  water,  and  require  no  further  attention.  It 
is  well  not  to  attempt  preservation  of  large  masses  of  eggs, 
such  as  those  of  the  frog  and  the  spotted  amblystoma,  for  the 
preservative  does  not  readily  penetrate  through  the  jelly  to 
the  innermost  eggs.  In  such  cases,  small  pieces  of  the  jelly 
containing  not  more  than  ten  eggs  insures  good  preservation. 
The  eggs  of  the  common  toad  are  well  preserved  by  simply 
dropping  the  egg-strings  into  the  diluted  formaldehyde. 

Eggs  and  embryos  preserved  as  directed  above  may  be 
examined  with  low  powers  (a  dissecting  microscope  with 
lenses  magnifying  twelve  to  twenty  times)  without  preparation 
other  than  isolating  the  eggs  from  the  mass  of  jelly  (using 
needles).  A  thin  coat  of  the  jelly  usually  adheres  to  the  egg, 
but  it  is  so  transparent  that  the  surface  of  the  egg  is  clearly 
visible. 


ZOOLOGICAL  MATERIALS  AND  METHODS    409 

3.    Some    Special   Laboratory   Equipment    for   Zoological  Work. 

Various  forms  of  fancy  glass  aquaria  are  to  be  found  de- 
scribed in  the  catalogues  of  dealers,  but  most  of  these  are  not 
valuable  for  school  purposes.  For  aquaria  holding 
less  than  five  gallons  of  water,  plain  glass  cylin- 
drical vessels  are  best.  The  solid  glass  aquaria  which  have 
square  corners  are  extremely  liable  to  crack,  and  this  serious 
defect  overbalances  the  favor  accorded  to  their  neat  appear- 
ance. For  most  purposes  the  cylindrical  aquaria  of  sizes 
smaller  than  eight  by  nine  inches  are  recommended,  because 
it  is  best  not  to  attempt  to  keep  too  many  kinds  of  material 
in  one  large  aquarium  in  which  the  entire  stock  of  specimens 
may  be  destroyed  by  one  accident.  Instead  of  the  regular 
aquarium  of  the  smaller  sizes,  white  glass  battery-jars  may  be 
used  with  great  economy.  Jars  six  by  eight  inches,  "  shop 
furniture "  style,  cost  (Whitall,  Tatum  &  Co.,  New  York) 
about  $4.25  per  dozen;  and  four  by  four  inches  cost  about 
$1.40.  The  six  by  eight  inch  size  in  the  "iron  mould  "  style 
cost  $2.15  per  dozen.  The  "iron  mould"  jars  are  more 
liable  to  crack,  particularly  if  wet  jars  be  allowed  to  dry  by 
evaporation,  but  if  care  be  taken  to  wipe  them  dry  immedi- 
ately after  washing  few  such  breakages  will  occur.  Various 
forms  of  cheap  glass  vessels,  such  as  fruit-jars,  tumblers,  etc., 
are  convenient  for  small  aquaria.  An  excellent  plan  for  aqua- 
ria made  of  plates  of  glass  cemented  together  in  a  metal  frame 
is  given  in  Hodge's  Nature  Study  and  Life.  Others  are  de- 
scribed in  special  books  on  aquaria  named  in  the  first  part  of 
this  chapter. 

If  many  jars  are  used  as  aquaria  it  may  be  desirable  to  have 
in  the  laboratory  a  set  of  shelves  for  holding  them.     The  best 
form  consists  of  a  frame  made  of  right-angled  iron  Aqtwria 
about  one- fourth  inch  thick  and  two  inches  wide   Racks- 
riveted  together  so  as  to  form  supports  for  shelves  made  of 
wood  or  thick  glass  plates  such  as  are  used  for  skylights.     If 
an  iron  frame  is  used  it  should  be  enamelled. 


410  THE   TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

Cheap  aquaria  or  vivaria  for  animals,  such  as  frogs,  sala- 
manders, and  crayfish,  may  be  made  of  galvanized  sheet-iron, 
Metal  Aquaria  which  for  the  sake  of  appearance  may  be  painted 
and  Vivaria.  or  enamelled  on  the  outside.  Convenient  sizes 
are  sixteen  by  twenty-four  by  six  inches,  and  twelve  by  sixteen 
by  six  inches.  The  edges  should  be  rolled  over  a  one-fourth 
inch  iron  frame  in  order  to  stiffen  the  pan.  To  prevent  crowd- 
ing, or  to  separate  different  kinds  of  animals,  it  is  sometimes 
necessary  to  divide  the  space  of  the  pan  temporarily  into  sec- 
tions, and  for  this  purpose  a  movable  partition  can  be  made 
of  the  galvanized  sheet- iron.  A  sheet  five  inches  wide  and 
four  inches  longer  than  the  width  of  the  pan  is  bent  at  right 
angles. two  inches  from  each  end.  By  slightly  bending  the 
strip  in  the  middle  while  adjusting  it  may  be  set  in  to  any 
desired  position,  and  will  hold  itself  in  place.  Of  course,  a 
less  permanent  partition  could  be  made  of  any  convenient 
wood.  Shallow  pans  should  have  movable  covers  of  galvan- 
ized netting  of  about  one-half  inch  mesh.  This  should  be 
soldered  to  a  frame  made  of  L-shaped  galvanized  iron,  or 
ordinary  iron  which  may  be  painted  or  enamelled.  This 
frame  should  be  slightly  larger  than  the  outside  dimensions 
of  the  pan  in  order  that  the  downwardly  projecting  edge  of 
the  L-shaped  frame  may  serve  to  hold  the  cover  in  place.  The 
pans  may  have  drain  cocks  soldered  into  one  side  near  the 
bottom,  or  a  metal  tube  with  plug  on  the  inside  may  be  used, 
as  in  an  ordinary  wash-basin.  Various  forms  of  enamelled  and 
galvanized  iron  pans,  small  wash-tubs,  etc.,  are  now  on  the 
market,  and  these  when  fitted  with  covers  are  excellent  for 
aquaria  and  vivaria.  Being  regular  market  commodities  they 
are  less  expensive  than  any  made  to  order.  (In  New  York 
City  the  fourteen  by  eighteen  by  six  inch  size  with  cover  de- 
scribed above  costs  about  $2.50.)  Water-tight  wooden  boxes 
are  easily  constructed  and  in  some  laboratories  serve  as  cheap 
substitutes  for  galvanized  iron  pans ;  but  if  the  labor  must  be 
paid  for  at  the  usual  price?  the  metal  vessels  will  be  cheaper, 
in  the  end. 


ZOOLOGICAL   MATERIALS  AND  METHODS     411 

A  convenient  size  of  pan  for  general  dissection  is  about  six 
by  nine  inches  at  the  top,  five  and  one-half  by  eight  and  one- 
half  inches  at  the  bottom  and  two  and  one-half  Dissectillg 
inches  deep.  Such  pans  can  be  purchased  from  Pans' 
dealers  in  general  laboratory  supplies,  but  it  is  usually  cheaper 
to  get  them  from  a  dealer  in  tinware.  Pans  of  approximately 
this  size  made  of  tin  and  enamelled  ware  are  now  a  regular 
market  commodity  at  prices  ranging  from  a  dollar  and  a  half 
to  three  dollars  per  dozen,  depending  upon  quality.  Pans 
made  of  zinc  are  the  most  durable,  but  the  first  cost  is  some- 
what greater.  They  are  not  regularly  on  the  market,  but  may 
be  made  by  any  tinsmith. 

In  order  that  pins  may  be  used  in  fastening  specimens, 
the  bottom  is  usually  lined  with  paraffin,  colored  with 
lampblack  and  held  in  place  by  metal  projections  soldered 
into  the  corners  of  the  pan,  or  the  wax  is  weighted  with 
pieces  of  lead  which  are  placed  in  the  pan  while  the  wax 
is  in  a  molten  condition.  Sometimes  instead  of  wax  a  thin 
board  of  soft  wood  is  fitted  to  the  bottom.  The  ordinary 
cork-carpet  is  excellent  for  this  purpose.  Wood  or  cork 
pinning  boards  should  be  kept  from  floating  when  the 
pans  are  filled  with  water  either  by  means  of  metal  projec- 
tions soldered  in  the  corners,  by  weighting  with  pieces  of 
lead,  or  by  small  wedges  of  wood  inserted  at  the  corners  of 
the  pan. 

Another  dissecting  dish  is  made  from  an  enamelled  baking- 
pan,  six  by  eight  by  two  inches,  corners  rounded,  with  wide  rim, 
white  inside  and  outside ;  costs  about  twenty-five  cents  each  in 
department  stores.  This  may  be  fitted  with  cork-carpet  or 
wooden  bottom,  held  in  place  by  wire  clips  which  clamp  under 
the  wide  rim  on  the  outside,  and  thus  equipped  it  may  be  used 
as  a  dissecting  pan,  or  after  removal  of  pinning  board  it  is 
useful  for  table  use  in  the  study  of  living  animals,  such  as  water 
insects,  tadpoles,  fishes,  frogs'  eggs,  snails,  slugs,  earthworms, 
etc. 

The  Riker  mount,  a  cardboard  box  filled  with  sheet  cotton 


412  THE   TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

on  which  specimens  are  placed  and  then  held  in  place  with  a 
Specimen  glass  cover.  The  five  by  six  inch  size  costs  $2.50 
Cases.  per  dozen  -}  eight  by  twelve  inch  costs  $6.00  per 

dozen.  Kny-Scheerer  Co.,  New  York,  and  other  dealers. 

A  new  patent  mount  for  insects,  by  Denton  Brothers, 
Wellesley,  Mass.,  allows  unobstructed  view  of  both  sides  of 
the  specimens  and  requires  no  pin.  Price  from  five  to 
twenty-three  cents  each.  The  smallest  size  is  about  one  by 
one  and  one-half  inches. 

A  plaster  tablet  mount  is  made  by  the  Denton  Brothers. 

Large  boxes  suitable  for  life-histories  of  insects  are  made  by 
American  Entomological  Co.,  Brooklyn ;  and  by  Kny-Scheerer 
Co.,  New  York. 

For  systematic  collections  of  insects  the  Comstock  cases 
described  in  the  Cornell  Nature  Study  Leaflets  and  in  appen- 
dix to  Comstock's  Insect  Life  are  most  convenient. 

I  have  used  for  four  years  a  case,  seven  by  nine  inches  with 
glass  on  each  side,  specimens  pinned  to  corks  or  placed  in  glass 
tubes  which  are  glued  to  one  glass.  The  frame  of  this  case 
is  made  of  whitewood,  one-half  inch  thick  by  one  inch  wide. 
This  frame  is  grooved  on  either  side  to  receive  the  glass  which  is 
held  in  place  by  small  brads  and  a  strip  of  lantern-slide  or 
passe-partout  paper  which  is  glued  over  the  edges  of  glass  and 
frame,  thus  keeping  out  dust  and  insect  pests.  An  expensive 
improvement  consists  in  the  addition  of  a  tongue  and  groove 
uniting  the  top  and  bottom  halves  of  the  frame  so  that  it  can 
be  easily  opened  for  changing  specimens.  This  case  in  several 
sizes  is  now  being  made  by  the  "  Home  Made "  Scientific 
Apparatus  Co.,  Mechanicsburg,  O. 

Simple  cages  made  of  mosquito  netting  and  wooden  boxes 
Insect  Breed-  are  described  in  Comstock's  Insect  Life,  by  Riley, 
ing  cages.  in  part  F>  Bulletin  39,  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.,  1892,  and 
in  many  popular  books  on  insects. 

A  simple  cage  which  I  consider  most  useful  consists  of  a 
cylinder  of  ordinary  wire-screen  such  as  is  used  for  doors, 
closed  at  one  end  with  a  disk  of  the  same  netting.  The  net- 


ZOOLOGICAL    MATERIALS  AND  METHODS     413 

ting  is  easily  fastened  together  by  riveting  with  staples  of 
copper  wire  made  in  the  shape  of  two  pointed  carpet  tacks, 
or  by  sewing  with  fine  wire.  This  cage  may  be  set  over 
plants  in  pots,  boxes  containing  soil,  etc.  A  convenient  size 
is  eight  inches  in  diameter  by  fourteen  inches  long. 

Folding  cages  made  of  galvanized  netting  are  made  by  the 
Kny-Scheerer  Co.,  New  York.  One  twelve  by  twelve  by 
fourteen  inches  costs  about  $2.50.  Other  styles  are  made  by 
American  Entomological  Co.,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Cheapest  of  all  are,  of  course,  the  various  forms  of  fruit-jars, 
best  of  which  are  the  patented  jars  with  glass  covers.  The  Mason 
jars  and  others  with  metal  covers  are  useless  with 
formalin.  But  for  choice  specimens  neater  jars  are 
wanted.  "  Salt  mouth  "  bottles  used  by  druggists  are  the 
cheapest  glass-stopped  bottles  which  are  useful  for  the  school 
museum.  VVhitall,  Tatum  &  Co.,  New  York,  make  many  styles 
smaller  than  "  twenty  ounce,"  which  are  as  useful  as  much 
more  expensive  museum  jars  made  by  the  same  firm.  Rec- 
tangular jars  of  various  sizes  are  imported  by  the  Kny-Scheerer 
Co.,  New  York. 

The  method  of  mounting  on  glass  plates  set  in  museum  jars 
is  well  known  to  preparateurs,  but  deserves  review  here.  Cut 

the  glass  —  transparent,  opalescent,  or  black  —  so 

.  .  .  Mounting 

that  it  fits  inside  of  a  jar  when  cover  is  on.     Clean   specimens  in 

it  thoroughly.  Specimens  previously  hardened  in 
alcohol  or  formalin  should  be  soaked  for  an  hour  in  water. 
Ordinary  gelatine  soaked  in  water  and  then  melted  should  be 
dropped  on  the  glass  where  the  specimens  are  to  be  fixed. 
Then  put  specimens  in  position,  and  if  they  are  heavy,  sup- 
port by  a  thread  around  the  glass.  When  the  gelatine  has 
hardened,  gently  flood  the  glass  plate  with  formalin  (five  parts 
of  commercial  formalin  to  one  hundred  parts  of  water)  and 
after  a  few  minutes  the  plate  may  be  lowered  into  the  jar  filled 
with  formalin  of  the  same  strength.  This  method  is  especially 
useful  for  life- histories  of  insects  and  for  series  of  embryos  of 
vertebrates,  such  as  the  chick. 


414  THE   TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

The  preceding  pages  have  been  limited  chiefly  to  special 
equipment  which  deserves  to  be  better  known  by  teachers  of 

zoology.  For  general  equipment,  useful  also  for 
Laboratory  botany,  see  the  catalogues  of  dealers  named  in 

following  list.  The  completed  (December,  1903) 
volumes  of  the  Journal  of  Applied  Microscopy  and  Labora- 
tory Methods  are  especially  valuable  for  suggestions  on  plan- 
ning and  equipping  biological  laboratories.  See  also  Hell's 
Biological  Laboratory  Methods  (Macmillan,  New  York) . 

Dealers  in  Zoological  Materials  and  Museum  Specimens. 

AMERICAN  ENTOMOLOGICAL  Co.,  1040  DeKalb  Ave.,  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.  (Mounted  insects,  type  collections,  living  pupae  of  lepidoptera, 
mimicry  sets,  insects  identified  at  two  cents  each,  breeding  boxes,  cab- 
inets, nets.  Catalogue  for  sale.) 

BIOLOGICAL  LABORATORY,  Cold  Spring  Harbor,  Long  Island,  N.  Y. 
(Preserved  materials,  chiefly  marine.  Price-list  issued.) 

BOOTH  &  Co.,  State  and  Lake  Streets,  Chicago,  111.  (Fish  market. 
Crayfish  in  September.) 

BRIMLEY,  H.  H.,  AND  C.  S.,  Raleigh,  N.  C.  (Land,  fresh-water,  and 
marine  animals,  living  and  preserved.  Catalogue  issued.) 

BROOKLYN  BIOLOGICAL  SUPPLY  Co.  (Land,  fresh-water,  and  marine 
animals,  living  and  preserved ;  also  microscopical  preparations.  Cata- 
logue.) 

DENTON  BROS.,  Wellesley,  Mass.  (Insects,  mimicry  sets,  mounting 
cases.  Circulars.) 

FICKLIN,  W.  II.,  2640  E.  8th  St.,  Kansas  City,  Mo.  (Materials  for 
laboratory  study.) 

HOPKINS  SEASIDE  LABORATORY,  Stanford  University,  Cal.  (Pre- 
served marine  animals.  Circular.) 

KNOLL  &  SON,  Washington  Market,  New  York  City.  (Living  cray- 
fish, prawns,  crabs,  lobsters,  marine  clams.) 

KNY-SCHEERER  Co.,  New  York.  (Great  variety  of  zoological 
materials  for  museum  specimens.  Catalogues.) 

MARINE  BIOLOGICAL  LABORATORY,  Supply  Department,  Woods 
Hole,  Mass.  (Living  and  preserved  materials,  chiefly  marine.  Cata- 
logue.) 

MAYNARD,  C.  J.,  Newton,  Mass.  (A  great  variety  of  preserved  and 
living  animals.  Circular.) 

McCuRDY  &  Co.,  618  E.  71  St.,  Chicago,  111.  (Living  frogs,  turtles, 
clams,  and  crayfish.) 

NIELSON,  ALEX,  Venice,  Erie  Co.,  Ohio.     (Necturus,  turtles.) 

PERCEVAL,  C.,  dealer  in  delicatessen,   100  Sixth  Ave.,  New  York. 


ZOOLOGICAL  MATERIALS  AND  METHODS     415 

(Importer  of  European  edible  snail  [Helix  pomatia],  September  to 
March.  About  $1.50  per  100.) 

SPRUNG,  A.  A.  North  Judson,  Ind.  (Living  frogs,  turtles,  snakes, 
fresh-water  clams,  and  crayfish.) 

TUFTS  COLLEGE  BIOLOGICAL  LABORATORY,  South  Harpswell,  Me. 
Address  in  college  year  is  Tufts  College,  Mass.  (Preserved  marine 
material.  Circular.) 

WARD'S  NATURAL  SCIENCE  ESTABLISHMENT,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 
(Skeletons,  taxidermic  materials,  and  museum  specimens  in  great 
variety.  Catalogues  for  sale.) 

C.  H.  WARD,  Rochester,  N.  Y.     (Anatomical  preparations.) 

WEBSTER  Co.,  Hyde  Park,  Mass.  (Birds'  skins  and  taxidermists' 
supplies.) 

Dealers  in  General  Laboratory  Apparatus  and  Supplies. 

BAUSCH  &  LOME  OPTICAL  Co.,  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  New  York  City, 
Chicago,  and  Boston. 

CAMBRIDGE  BOTANICAL  SUPPLY  Co.,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

CENTRAL  SCHOOL  SUPPLY  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 

C.  H.  STOELTING  Co.,  Successors  to  Chicago  Scale  and  Laboratory 
Supply  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 

EBERBACH  &  SON,  Ann  Arbor,  Mich. 

EIMER  &  AMEND,  New  York. 

EMIL  GREINER,  New  York. 

"HOME-MADE"  SCIENTIFIC  APPARATUS  Co.,  Mechanicsburg,  O. 
(Makers  of  specimen  cases  and  simple  apparatus.) 

KNOTT  SCIENTIFIC  APPARATUS  Co.,  Boston. 

KNY-SCHEERER  Co.,  17  Park  PL,  New  York. 

LEITZ  &  Co.,  of  Wetzlar,  Germany.  American  agency  at  411  W. 
59th  St.,  New  York.  W.  Krafft,  Mgr. 

LENTZ  &  SONS,  Philadelphia,  Penn. 

PENNOCK,  EDWARD,  3609  Woodland  Ave.,  Philadelphia,  Penn. 

QUEEN  &  Co.,  Philadelphia  and  New  York. 

SARGENT  &  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 

SPENCER  LENS  Co.,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

WHITALL,  TATUM  &  Co.,  Philadelphia,  New  York,  and  Boston. 
(Makers  of  glassware.) 

WILLIAMS,  BROWN  &  EARLE,  Philadelphia. 

MICROSCOPES  are  made  or  imported  direct  by  Bausch  &  Lomb, 
Eimer  &  Amend,  Kny-Scheerer  Co.,  Leitz  &  Co.,  Spencer  Lens  Co., 
Williams,  Brown  &  Earle,  and  Queen  &  Co. 

LANTERN  SLIDES  on  zoological  subjects  are  made  by  R.  P.  Wood- 
ford,  Pullman,  111. ;  A.  T.  Thompson  &  Co.,  Boston  ;  Kny-Scheerer  Co., 
New  York  ;  N.  F.  Davis,  Bucknell  College,  Lewiston,  Pa. 

CHARTS.  Leuckart's  zoological  charts,  a  series  of  100,  mounted  on 
cloth  and  rolled,  about  $1.70  each  when  imported  duty  free.  Less  than 


416  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

one-third  of  these  charts  are  useful  for  high-school  work.  Descriptive 
catalogues  and  the  charts  may  be  obtained  from  the  Kny-Scheerer  Co;, 
and  other  firms  dealing  in  laboratory  supplies.  Jung's  zoological  charts, 
series  of  30,  30  by  39  inches,  cloth,  $1.50  each  are  published  by  J.  L. 
Hammett  &  Co.,  New  York  and  Boston. 

PORTRAITS  OF  BIOLOGISTS.  Excellent  platinotypes  of  Darwin  and 
Huxley,  from  Collier's  paintings,  are  sold  by  A.  D.  Batson,  Allston, 
Mass.,  at  $3.50  each.  A  number  of  biologists  are  represented  in  Mac- 
millan's  series  of  Nature  Portraits.  India  proofs  at  $1.50  each.  The 
Open  Court  Co.,  Chicago,  publishes  photogravures,  n  by  14,  of  Herbert 
Spencer,  Lloyd  Morgan,  Romanes,  Darwin,  and  Haeckel. 

MODELS.  Ziegler's  wax  models  of  frog  development  are  most  useful. 
Imported  by  Kny-Scheerer  Co.  Set  of  twenty-five  cost,  duty  free,  about 
$28.  Various  anatomical  models  in  papier-mache,  plaster,  and  wax  are 
imported  by  the  same  firm. 

HOELEMANN'S  anatomical  plates  of  the  human  body  are  sold  by 
Rand,  McNally  &  Co.,  Chicago.  Series  of  five  plates,  26  by  37,  $4.00 
each.  These  and  other  charts  are  obtainable  through  the  Kny-Scheerer 
Co.,  New  York. 


CHAPTER   X 

ZOOLOGICAL   BOOKS 

THE  books  of  the  following  lists  have  been  selected  with 
special  reference  to  their  usefulness  to  teachers  and  students 
of  zoology  in  schools  below  the  grade  of  college.  Mma  guiding 
The  list  for  the  teacher  includes  not  only  books  tte  Selecting, 
for  use  in  direct  connection  with  teaching,  but  also  many 
zoological  masterpieces  with  which  every  beginner  in  zoologi- 
cal teaching  should  aim  to  become  acquainted  as  soon  as 
possible.  It  has  seemed  best  to  select  books  of  a  general 
nature  rather  than  to  compile  an  extensive  bibliography  in- 
cluding many  special  works  which  would  be  rarely,  if  ever, 
used  in  connection  with  the  work  or  study  of  the  average 
teacher  in  a  secondary  school.  In  justification  of  many  omis- 
sions of  great  works  familiar  to  working  zoologists  it  may  be 
said  that  teachers  in  secondary  schools  who  would  obtain  and 
make  efficient  use  of  these  works  are  generally  those  who  are 
specially  trained  by  years  of  graduate  study  in  zoology  and 
these  may  be  supposed  to  be  familiar  with  the  existence 
and  general  contents  of  the  important  zoological  literature. 
But  the  great  majority  of  teachers  of  zoology  in  high  schools 
are  those  who  have  had  the  advantages  of  only  a  limited 
undergraduate  training  in  the  science,  and  these  therefore 
need  references  to  some  of  the  most  useful  general  works 
rather  than  to  the  special  treatises,  memoirs,  and  monographs, 
which  have  special  interest  for  the  professional  zoologist. 
Obviously,  to  extend  the  list  by  adding  many  special  works 
would  be  to  introduce  confusion,  instead  of  aiding  in  the 
selection  of  books. 

27 


41 8  THE   TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

Teachers  who  need  more  books  or  special  works  more 
technical  than  those  here  listed  will  find  many  additional 
references  in  Parker  and  Haswell's  Text-book  of 
erafuieLit"  Zoology*  Vol.  II.,  pp.  628-655 ;  and  in  ap- 
pendices to  Thompson's  Outlines  of  Zoology  and 
to  his  Study  of  Animal  Life.  References  to  important  special 
literature  is  given  in  many  of  the  general  text-books ;  for 
example,  in  McMurrich's  Invertebrate  Morphology,  Wilson's 
Cell,  and  Schafer's  Physiology.  An  appendix  to  Davenport's 
Introduction  to  Zoology  includes  many  special  works  relating 
to  ecological  and  systematic  zoology  of  American  animals. 

To  the  teacher  and  student  of  zoology  whose  unfamiliarity 
with  the  general  literature  of  the  science  leads  them  to  seek 
An  important  suggestions  regarding  the  selection  of  books  I 
Books  on  would  recommend  especially  the  reading  of  the 
Zoology.  appendix  in  Thomson's  Study  of  Animal  Life. 

The  question  of  obtaining  even  the  absolutely  necessary 
general  reference  books  is  often  a  serious  problem  for  the 
School  Libra-  teacher  m  some  localities,  but  the  rapid  growth  of 
ries'  public  and  school  libraries  is  solving  this  problem. 

Most  of  the  reference  books  named  on  the  following  pages 
while  directly  valuable  to  the  teacher  are  also  useful  to  the 
pupils  in  that  selected  pages,  and  especially  the  illustrations, 
often  make  interesting  additions  to  the  elementary  books.  A 
good  selection  of  such  books  should  be  a  part  of  the  equipment 
of  the  biological  laboratory  of  the  school.  It  is  a  reasonable 
expenditure  of  school  funds. 

i.     General  Reference  Books  for  Teachers  of  Zoology, 
i.  General  Zoology,  Advanced  Text-books  and  Reference  Works. 

The  most  useful  work  for  general  reference  by  advanced 
student  or  teacher  is  Parker  and  Haswell's  Text-book  of 
Zoology.  Glaus  and  Sedgwick's  Text-book  of  Zoology  has  long 
had  such  distinction,  but  the  last  edition  bears  the  date  1884, 
and  some  parts  of  it  are  now  out  of  line  with  later  investiga- 
tions. However,  it  is  still  very  useful.  Probably  the  most 


ZOOLOGICAL  BOOKS  419 

popular  single  volume  covering  the  general  field  of  zoology  is 
Thomson's  Outlines,  but  the  text-books  by  Shipley  and  Mac- 
Bride,  Hertwig,  Packard,  and  the  abridgment  of  Parker  and 
Haswell's  Text-book  have  many  good  points  in  their  favor. 
As  text-books  aiming  to  present  the  elements  of  the  general 
principles  of  zoology  rather  than  a  systematic  account  of  the 
animal  kingdom,  there  are  at  least  five  which  are  excellent : 
Huxley's  Study  of  Zoology  {Crayfish),  Parker's  Elementary 
Biology,  Sedgwick  and  Wilson's  General  Biology,  Parker  and 
Parker's  Practical  Zoology,  and  Morgan's  Animal  Biology.  All 
of  these  are  limited  to  descriptions  of  comparatively  few 
animals,  but  for  elementary  presentation  of  general  principles 
of  zoology  they  are  unquestionably  the  best.  More  advanced 
than  these,  and  valuable  for  the  special  student  and  teacher  is 
Hertwig' s  General  Principles. 

Parker,  T.  J.,  and  Haswell.  Text-book  of  Zoology.  London,  Mac- 
millan.1  1897.  2  vols.,  pp.  779,  683;  figs,  663,  509.  Vol.  L,  Inverte- 
brates; Vol.  II.,  Chordates  (not  sold  separately).  $9.00. 

Glaus,  C.  Text-book  of  Zoology.  Translated  by  A.  Sedgwick. 
London,  Macmillan.  1884,  1885.  2  vols.,  pp  615,  352,  figs.,  491,  215. 
Vol.  L,  Protozoa  to  Insects;  Vol.  II.,  Mollusks  to  Mammals. 

Thomson,  J.  A.  Outlines  of  Zoology.  London,  Pentland.  New 
York,  Appleton.  Third  edition,  1899.  Pp.  819,  figs.  332.  $3.50. 

Hertwig,  R.  Manual  of  Zoology.  Translated  by  J.  S.  Kingsley. 
New  York,  Holt.  London,  Bell.  1902.  Pp.  704,  figs.  672.  $3.00. 


1  In  the  following  list  the  names  of  well-known  publishing  houses 
have  been  abbreviated  by  using  the  leading  part  of  the  name.  Thus 
Macmillan  stands  for  Macmillan  &  Co.,  of  London,  and  The  Macmillan 
Co.,  of  New  York ;  Longmans  for  Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  of  London 
and  New  York ;  Doubleday  for  Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.,  of  New  York. 

In  regard  to  place  of  publication  and  publisher,  it  is  intended  to  give 
the  place  of  original  publication  first,  followed  by  name  and  address  of 
the  foreign  agents  or  reprinters.  In  case  of  such  well-known  houses 
as  those  of  Longmans  and  Macmillan,  with  branches  both  here  and 
abroad,  simply  the  place  of  original  publication  is  given,  usually  London 
for  English  authors  and  New  York  for  American. 

In  several  cases,  at  least,  the  publishers  of  certain  books  named  have 
remaining  in  their  possession  few  copies,  but  copies  may  usually  be 
obtained  from  general  dealers. 


420  THE   TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

Parker  and  Haswell.  Manual  of  Zoology.  New  York,  Macmillan. 
American  edition,  1900.  Pp.  563,  figs.  327.  $1.60.  (An  abridgment  of 
the  text-book  by  the  same  authors.) 

Packard,  A.  S.  Zoology  (advanced).  New  York,  Holt.  Seventh 
edition,  1886.  Pp.  721,  ill.  545.  $2.40. 

Shipley,  A.  E.,  and  MacBride,  E.  W.  Zoology  —  An  Elementary 
Text-book.  New  York,  Macmillan.  1901.  Pp.  632,  ill.  349.  $3.00. 

Huxley,  T.  H.  An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Zoology,  illustrated 
by  the  Crayfish.  London,  Kegan  Paul.  New  York,  Appleton.  1879. 
Pp.  371,  figs.  82.  $1.75.  (A  zoological  classic.  Deals  with  crayfish 
from  the  viewpoints  of  all  phases  of  zoological  study.) 

Morgan,  C.  L.  Animal  Biology.  London  and  New  York,  Long- 
mans. 1889.  Pp.  388.  (Part  I.  deals  with  internal  anatomy  and  em- 
bryology as  illustrated  by  frog,  bird,  rabbit.  Part  II.  presents  some 
invertebrate  types.) 

Parker,  T.  J.  Elementary  Biology.  London,  Macmillan.  Third 
edition,  1897.  Pp.  503,  figs.  127.  $2.60.  (The  chief  animal  types  con- 
sidered are  Amoeba,  Paramoecium,  Vorticella,  Hydra,  Polygordius,  star- 
fish, crayfish,  mussel,  dogfish.  Beyond  question  this  is  the  best  intro- 
duction to  general  biology  of  animals  and  plants.) 

Parker,  T.  J.,  and  Parker,  "W.  N.  An  Elementary  Course  of  Practi- 
cal Zoology.  London,  Macmillan.  1900.  Pp.  608,  figs.  156.  $2.60. 
(Part  I.  is  an  introduction  to  general  principles  of  zoology.  It  treats  of 
anatomy,  histology,  embryology,  and  physiology  of  frog.  Part  II.  deals 
with  the  animals  included  in  Parker's  Elementary  Biology  and  in  addition 
several  vertebrates.) 

Sedgwick,  W.  T.,  and  "Wilson,  E.  B.  General  Biology.  New  York, 
Holt.  Revised  edition,  1895.  Pp.  231,  figs.  105.  $1.75.  (The  zoological 
part  is  based  upon  a  study  of  morphology  and  physiology  of  earth- 
worm.) 

Hertwig,  R.  General  principles  of  Zoology.  Translated  by  G.  W. 
Field.  New  York,  Holt.  London,  Bell.  1896.  Pp.  226,  figs.  1 10.  $1.60. 
(This  is  part  I.  of  the  Manual  of  Zoology  by  the  same  author,  see  above.) 

2.  Special  Morphology. 

The  books  named  below  are  more  or  less  special  works 
limited  to  certain  groups  of  animals  or  to  certain  aspects  of 
the  science.  In  all  of  them  the  morphological  predominates, 
strictly  physiological  literature  being  reserved  for.  a  later 
section. 


Calkins,  G.  N.     The  Protozoa.     New  York,  Macmillan.     1901.     Pp. 
347,  figs.  152.     #3.00.     (Important  for  the  general  student  of  zoology.) 


ZOOLOGICAL  BOOKS  421 

Dean,  B.  Fishes,  Living  and  Fossil.  New  York,  Macmillan.  1895. 
Pp.  300,  figs.  344.  $2.50.  (A  concise  account  for  general  students. 
Covers  anatomy,  embryology,  and  palaeontology.) 

Foster,  M.,  and  Balfour,  F.  M.  Elements  of  Embryology.  New 
edition  by  A.  Sedgwick  and  W.  Heape.  London,  Macmillan.  1883. 
Pp.  486,  illus.  141.  $2.60.  (General  account  of  embryology  of  chick 
and  rabbit,  with  directions  for  practical  study.) 

Huxley,  T.  H.  Anatomy  of  Vertebrated  Animals.  Anatomy  of  In- 
vertebrated  Animals.  1877.  New  York,  Appleton.  (These  famous 
text-books  are  still  useful  for  reference.) 

Kingsley,  J.  S.  Text-book  of  Vertebrate  Zoology.  New  York, 
Holt.  1899.  Pp.  439,  figs.  378.  $3.00. 

Lang,  A.  Comparative  Anatomy.  Translated  by  H.  M.  and  M. 
Bernard.  London,  Macmillan.  1891,  1895.  2  vols.  $5.50.  (Excellent 
for  reference  ) 

Marshall,  A.  M.  Vertebrate  Embryology.  London,  Smith,  Elder. 
New  York,  Putnam.  1893.  Pp.  640,  figs.  240.  $6.00.  (Excellent. 
Deals  with  development  of  Amphioxus,  frog,  chick,  rabbit,  and  human.) 

McMurrich,  J.  P.  Invertebrate  Morphology.  New  York,  Holt 
1894.  Pp.  661,  figs.  291.  $3.00. 

Wiedersheim,  R.  Elements  of  Comparative  Anatomy  of  Verte- 
brates. Translated  by  W.  N.  Parker.  London,  Macmillan.  Revised 
edition,  1897.  Pp.  345,  figs.  270.  $3.25. 

"Wilson,  B.  B.  The  Cell  in  Development  and  in  Inheritance.  New 
York,  Macmillan.  Revised  edition,  1901.  Pp.  371,  figs.  142.  $3.00. 
(For  the  cellular  side  of  zoology,  indeed  of  biology  in  general,  this  is 
indispensable.) 

Zoological  Articles  in  Encyclopedia  Britannica  by  Lankester  and 
others. 


3.  Animal  Physiology. 

Verworn's  General  Physiology  gives  the  broadest  analysis  of 
general  vital  activities.  There  are  several  excellent  text-books 
dealing  with  vertebrate  physiology  with  special  reference  to 
the  human  body.  Those  by  Huxley,  Martin,  and  Halliburton 
(Kirkes)  are  more  general  than  those  which  follow  them  in 
the  list  below ;  in  addition  to  physiology,  these  present  the 
essentiajs  of  anatomy  and  histology.  Stewart's  Manual  has 
been  recommended  by  some  prominent  physiologists  as  the 
best  recent  volume  devoted  strictly  to  physiological  problems 
for  the  general  student.  The  last  two,  by  Howell  and  Shafer,  are 
more  extensive  treatises  primarily  of  interest  to  those  who  have 


422  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

been  specially  trained  in  physiology,  but  also  valuable  reference 
works  for  the  teacher  of  general  zoology  and  physiology. 

Verworn,  M.  General  Physiology.  Translated  by  F.  S.  Lee.  New 
York,  Macmillan.  1898.  Pp.  599,  figs.  285.  $4.00. 

Huxley,  T.  H.  Lessons  in  Elementary  Physiology.  New  York, 
Macmillan.  American  revised  edition  by  F.  S.  Lee.  1900.  Pp.  577 
figs.  179.  $1.10. 

Martin,  H.  N.  The  Human  Body,  Advanced  Course.  New  York, 
Holt.  .London,  Bell.  Fifth  edition,  1898.  Pp.  408,  figs.  152.  $2.50. 

Halliburton,  W.  D.  Kirkes'  Handbook  of  Physiology.  Seven- 
teenth edition,  1901.  London,  Murray.  Philadelphia,  Blakiston.  Pp, 
888,  illus.6Si.  $3.00.  (An  unauthorised  reprint  of  an  earlier  edition  is 
on  the  market,  and  it  is  necessary  to  name  the  above  publishers  in 
orders  for  the  book.) 

Stewart,  G.  N.  Manual  of  Physiology.  Philadelphia  and  Lon- 
don, Saunders.  Fourth  edition,  revised,  1900.  Pp.  894,  figs.  336.  $3.75. 

Howell,  "W.  H.  Editor.  American  Text-Book  of  Physiology. 
Philadelphia,  Saunders.  Second  edition,  revised,  1901.  2  volumes, 
i, 200  pages.  $600. 

Schafer,  E.  A.  Editor.  Text-Book  of  Physiology.  London,  Mac- 
millan. 1898.  2  volumes,  pp.  1036,  1365.  Vol.  I.,  $8.00;  Vol.  II., 
$10.00.  (Contributed  by  prominent  physiologists.  Full  and  precise 
information  and  references  to  original  authorities.) 

4.  Bacteriology  and  Hygiene. 

Books  on  these  subjects  are  closely  associated  with  human 
physiology,  and  hence  properly  belong  in  a  list  of  zoological 
books.  The  books  by  Conn,  Mrs.  Frankland,  and  Prudden 
are  excellent  brief  introductions  to  the  bacteria.  As  more  ex- 
tensive general  accounts,  the  larger  volumes  by  Newman  and 
Frankland  are  excellent.  With  special  reference  to  the  path- 
ogenic bacteria  Muir  and  Ritchie's  Manual  is  well  recom- 
mended as  one  of  the  latest  books  on  the  subject.  Teachers 
who  wish  to  introduce  study  of  bacteria  into  their  courses  will 
find  excellent  practical  directions  for  beginners  in  the  hand- 
books by  Gorham  and  Moore.  The  general  field  of  sanitary 
science  is  well  presented  by  Sedgwick's  Principles ;  .and  as 
a  general  survey  of  personal  hygiene,  Pyle's  book  has  the 
advantage  of  having  been  written  by  a  number  of  workers  in 
special  lines  of  this  subject  which  is  usually  treated  more  01 
less  arbitrarily. 


ZOOLOGICAL  BOOKS  423 

Conn,  H.  W.     Story  of  Germ  Life.     New  York,  Appleton.     1897. 

PP-  197-    35  cents- 

Prudden,  T.  M.  Story  of  the  Bacteria.  Dust  and  its  Dangers. 
Water  and  Ice.  New  York,  Putnam.  Each,  75  cents. 

Newman,  G.  The  Bacteria.  London,  Murray.  New  York,  Put- 
nam. 1899.  Pp.  348.  $2.00.  (A  non-technical  account  of  the  general 
relations  of  bacteria.) 

Franklin,  P.  Our  Secret  Friends  and  Foes.  London,  Society  for 
Promoting  Christian  Knowledge.  Third  edition,  1897.  (Excellent  for 
general  readers.) 

Frankland,  P.,  Mrs.  Bacteria  in  Daily  Life.  London,  Longmans. 
1903.  Pp.  206. 

Muir,  R.,  and  Ritchie,  J.  Manual  of  Bacteriology.  Edinburg  and 
London,  Pentland.  New  York,  Macmillan.  Second  edition,  1899.  Pp. 
550,  figs.  126.  There  is  also  a  larger  American  edition.  New  York, 
Macmillan.  1903.  $3.75.  (Good  on  methods.  Deals  only  with  patho- 
genic bacteria  affecting  man.) 

Gorham,  F.  P.  Laboratory  Course  in  Bacteriology.  Philadelphia 
and  London,  Saunders.  1901.  Pp.  192,  figs.  97.  $1.25. 

Moore,  V.  A.  Laboratory  Directions  for  Beginners  in  Bacteriology. 
Boston,  Ginn.  Second  edition,  1900.  Pp.  141.  $1.00. 

Sedgwick,  W.  T.  Principles  of  Sanitary  Science  and  the  Public 
Health.  New  York,  Macmillan.  •  1902.  Pp.  388.  $3.00. 

Pyle,  W.  L.  Editor.  Personal  Hygiene.  Philadelphia  and  London, 
Saunders.  1900.  Pp.  344.  $i .50. 

5.  Laboratory  Manuals,  chiefly  Morphological 

A  set  of  the  best  guides  for  laboratory  work  is  almost  indis- 
pensable for  the  teacher's  reference  while  planning  laboratory 
work  for  classes,  and  for  direction  and  suggestion  in  personal 
studies.  Those  named  below  are  all  too  technical  for  use 
as  laboratory  guides  by  pupils  in  the  high  school.  Guides 
adapted  for  school  use  are  mentioned  in  this  chapter  on  page 
442.  The  first  five  books  named  below  are  most  generally 
useful. 

Marshall,  A.  M.,  and  Hurst,  C.  H.  Practical  Zoology.  London? 
Smith,  Elder.  New  York,  Putnam.  Fifth  edition,  1898.  Pp.  486* 
figs-  73-  $3-5°-  (The  fourth  edition  (1895)  is  still  useful.  Laboratory 
directions  for  Amoeba,  Vorticella,  Paramoecium,  Hydra,  liver-fluke,  leech, 
earthworm,  crayfish,  cockroach,  mussel,  snail,  Amphioxus,  dogfish, 
pigeon,  rabbit.) 

Huxley,  T.  H.,  and  Martin,  H.  N.  Course  of  Practical  Instruc- 
tion in  Elementary  Biology.  London,  Macmillan.  Revised  edition  by 


424  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

G.  B.  Howes  and  D.  H.  Scott.  1888.  Pp.  279.  $2.60.  The  zoological 
part  has  descriptions  and  laboratory  directions  for  Amoeba,  Vorticella, 
Paramoecium,  Opalina,  Hydra,  earthworm,  crayfish,  mussel,  snail,  frog. 

Parker  and  Parker.  Practical  Zoology.  (See  under  " general  zool- 
ogy.") This  combines  laboratory  directions  and  descriptions  of  frog, 
Amoeba,  Haematococcus,  Euglena,  Paramoecium  and  Vorticella,  Hydra 
and  hydroids,  earthworm,  crayfish,  mussel,  amphioxus,  dogfish,  rabbit. 

Pratt,  H.  S.  Invertebrate  Zoology.  Boston,  Ginn.  1902.  Pp.  210. 
$1.25.  (A  laboratory  guide  dealing  with  about  thirty  common  represen- 
tatives of  invertebrate  groups.) 

Brooks,  W.  K.  Handbook  of  Invertebrate  Zoology.  Boston.  1882. 
Pp.  392,  figs.  202.  For  sale  by  Knight  &  Millet,  Boston.  (Revision  is 
needed  in  some  parts.) 

Bumpus,  H.  C.  Invertebrate  Zoology.  New  York,  Holt.  Second 
edition,  1892.  Pp.  157.  $1.00. 

Parker,  T.  J.  Zootomy.  London,  Macmillan.  Second  edition, 
1884.  Pp.  397,  figs.  74.  $1.25.  (Dissection  of  lamprey,  skate,  cod, 
lizard,  pigeon,  rabbit.) 

Marshall,  A.  M.  The  Frog — An  Introduction  to  Anatomy,  Histol- 
ogy, and  Embryology.  London,  Macmillan.  Sixth  edition,  1896.  Pp. 
163,  figs.  35.  $1.10. 

Howes,"  G.  B.  Atlas  of  Practical  Elementary  Biology.  London, 
Macmillan.  Second  edition,  1902.  $3.50.  (Excellent  illustrations  to 
accompany  Huxley  and  Martin's  Practical  Biology.  Now  out  of  print, 
but  zoological  part  is  issued  with  title  "  Atlas  of  Practical  Elementary 
Zootomy."  $3.50. 

6.  Laboratory  Guides,  Physiology  and  Histology. 

Hall,  W.  S.  A  Laboratory  Guide  in  Physiology.  Chicago,  Chicago 
Medical  Book  Co.  1897.  Pp.  359,  illus.  60. 

Stirling,  W.  Outlines  of  Practical  Physiology.  London,  Lewis. 
Philadelphia,  Blakiston.  Third  edition,  1895.  $2.00. 

Stirling,  "W.  Outlines  of  Practical  Histology.  London,  Lewis. 
Philadelphia,  Blakiston.  Revised  edition,  1898.  Pp.  419,  illus.  368- 
$2.00.  (Indispensable  for  those  who  need  practical  directions  for  pre- 
paring tissues  for  microscopic  study.) 

7.   Systematic   Work. 

General  text-books  of  zoology,  especially  those  by  Glaus  and 
Sedgwick,  Parker  and  Haswell,  and  Thomson,  often  suffice  for 
finding  the  approximate  zoological  position  of  an  unknown 
animal,  but  for  the  determination  of  genera  and  species  other 
literature  is  frequently  necessary.  For  the  identification  of 


ZOOLOGICAL  BOOKS  425 

common  American  animals  the  works  named  below  will  in 
general  prove  most  useful.  More  special  literature  primarily 
of  interest  to  the  taxonomist  is  mentioned  in  an  appendix 
to  Davenport's  Zoology.  This  is  the  most  useful  small  volume 
for  general  identification,  containing  keys  and  descriptions  of 
the  most  common  forms,  both  vertebrate  and  invertebrate. 
Jordan's  Manual  is  the  only  single  volume  covering  the  group 
of  the  vertebrates.  This  and  Chapman's  Birds  of  Eastern 
North  America,  or  in  Western  States,  Bailey's  Handbook,  are 
sufficient  for  the  general  student.  In  fact,  such  popular  books 
as  Chapman's  Bird  Life,  Jordan  and  Evermann's  Food  and 
Game  Fishes,  Stone  and  Cram's  American  Animals,  and  others 
which  are  mentioned  in  the  list  of  books  on  natural  history 
(p.  438),  will  identify  the  most  common  forms  with  sufficient 
accuracy  for  general  purposes.  Likewise  in  the  case  of  insects 
and  spiders  the  popular  books  will  often  be  sufficient ;  but, 
if  possible,  Comstock's  Manual  should  be  at  hand  for 
reference.  The  American  Naturalist  has,  since  1899,  pub- 
lished from  time  to  time  synopses  by  well-known  specialists 
on  certain  North  American  groups  of  animals.  Finally,  the 
Riverside  Natural  History,  edited  by  Kingsley,  should  be 
mentioned  as  excellent  for  general  classification  of  American 
animals. 


Davenport,  C.  B.,  and  G.  C.  Introduction  to  Zoology.  New  York, 
Macmillan.  1899. 

Jordan,  D.  S.  Manual  of  Vertebrate  Animals  of  Northern  United 
States.  Chicago,  McClurg.  Fifth  edition,  1888.  Pp.  375.  $2.50. 

Chapman,  F.  M.  Handbook  of  Birds  of  Eastern  North  America. 
New  York,  Appleton.  1895.  Pp.  430,  figs.  150.  $3.00. 

Bailey,  F.  Merriam.  Handbook  of  Birds  of  Western  United  States. 
New  York,  Houghton.  1902.  $3.50. 

Comstock,  J.  H.,  and  A.  B.  Manual  for  the  Study  of  Insects. 
Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  Comstock  Pub.  Co.  Second  edition,  1895.  Pp.  yoi.illus. 
797- 

American  Naturalist.  A  monthly  journal  published  by  Ginn  & 
Co.,  Boston.  $4.00  per  year. 

Kingsley,  J.  S.,  Editor.  Riverside  (formerly  Standard)  Natural 
History.  Boston,  Houghton.  6  volumes. 


426  THE   TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

8.  Animal  Ecology. 

Animal  ecology  as  the  phase  of  zoology  dealing  with  rela- 
tions of  animals  to  environment  constitutes  a  prominent  part  of 
most  works  on  "  natural  history  "  named  under  that  heading 
(P-  435)-  But  there  are  some  works  which  are  limited  more 
closely  to  ecological  considerations,  and  the  leading  ones  of 
these  are  named  below.  The  first  two  are  admirable  elemen- 
tary accounts,  treating  broadly  the  relations  of  animals  to  en- 
vironments from  the  standpoint  of  adaptations  in  structure  and 
habit. 

Thomson,  J.  A.  The  Study  of  Animal  Life.  London,  Murray. 
New  York,  Scribner.  Third  edition,  1896.  $1.50. 

Jordan,  D.  S.,  and  Kellogg,  V.  L.  Animal  Life.  New  York,  Apple- 
ton.  1900.  Pp.  329,  figs.  180.  $1.20. 

Semper,  K.  Animal  Life  as  affected  by  the  natural  conditions  of 
existence.  London,  Kegan  Paul.  New  York,  Appleton.  1880.  Pp. 

472,  figS.   1 06.      $2.00. 

Beddard,  F.  E.  Animal  Coloration.  London,  Sonnenschein.  New 
York,  Macmillan.  Second  edition,  1895.  Pp.  288,  figs.  36,  4  colored 
plates. 

Poulton,  E.  B.  The  Colors  of  Animals.  London,  Kegan  Paul. 
New  York,  Appleton.  1889.  Pp.  360,  figs.  67.  $1.75.  (Special  attention 
to  insects.) 

Darwin,  C.  Fertilization  of  Orchids.  Insectivorous  Plants.  Vege- 
table Mould  and  Earthworms.  New  York,  Appleton. 

9.  Zoogeography  (Distribution). 

For  the  general  student  of  zoology  any  one  of  the  first  three 
books  will  be  satisfactory  after  reading  the  chapters  on  this  sub- 
ject in  general  text-books,  —  for  example,  in  Parker  and  Has- 
well's  Zoology.  Those  more  specially  interested  will  also  read 
Wallace's  great  works  on  this  subject. 

Beddard,  F.  E.  Text-Book  of  Zoogeography.  Cambridge,  Uni- 
versity Press.  New  York,  Macmillan.  1894.  Pp.  246.  $1.50. 

Heilprin,  A.  Geographical  and  Geological  Distribution  of  Animals. 
New  York,  Appleton.  1886.  Pp.  435.  $2.00. 

Lyddeker,  B.  Geographical  History  of  Mammals.  Cambridge, 
University  Press.  New  York,  Macmillan.  1896.  Pp.  400,  figs.  82. 


ZOOLOGICAL  BOOKS  427 

"Wallace,  A.  R.  Geographical  Distribution.  New  York,  Harpers. 
1876.  2  volumes. 

Wallace,  A.  R.  Island  Life.  London,  Macmillan.  First  edition, 

1880 ;  second,  1895.  PP- 563-  JM-75- 

10.  Animal  Psychology. 

The  most  important  books  along  the  lines  of  general  psychology  of 
animals  are  those  by  Lloyd  Morgan  and  Romanes. 

Morgan,  C.  L.  Animal  Behavior.  London,  Arnold.  1900.  New 
York,  Longmans.  Pp.  344.  $3  50.  (This  should  be  read  before  the 
author's  Animal  Life  and  Intelligence,  and  as  an  introduction  to  the 
subject.) 

Morgan,  C.  L.  Animal  Life  and  Intelligence.  Boston,  Ginn.  1891. 
Pp.  512.  (In  addition  to  mental  processes  there  is  much  interesting  dis- 
cussion of  problems  of  general  zoology,  such  as  evolution,  heredity,  etc.) 

Morgan,  C.  L.  Introduction  to  Comparative  Psychology.  London, 
Walter  Scott.  1894.  Pp.  378. 

Morgan,  C.  L.  Habit  and  Instinct.  London,  Arnold.  New  York, 
Longmans.  1896.  Pp.  351.  $5.50. 

Romanes,  G.  J.  Animal  Intelligence.  New  York,  Appleton.  1882. 
Pp.  520.  $1.75. 

Romanes,  G.  J.  Mental  Evolution  in  Animals.  New  York,  Apple- 
ton.  1883.  $2.00. 

Groos,  K.  The  Play  of  Animals.  Translated  by  E.  L.  Baldwin. 
New  York,  Appleton.  1898.  Pp.  341.  $1.75. 

Lubbock,  John.  Ants,  Bees,  and  Wasps.  London,  Kegan  Paul. 
New  York,  Appleton,  $2.00.  (Deals  with  mental  conditions  and 
powers  of  sense  in  these  insects.) 

n.  Economic  Zoology. 

There  is  no  concise  work  which  adequately  treats  the  econo- 
mic side  of  animals  in  general.  Incidental  references  to  eco- 
nomic importance  may  usually  be  found  in  books  on  general 
"natural  history"  of  animals.  In  addition  to  the  books  named 
below,  it  should  be  stated  that  some  of  the  best  literature  in 
the  field  of  economic  zoology  has  been  published  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  and  by  the  United 
States  Fish  Commission.  Besides  the  annual  reports  of  these 
two  departments,  there  are  many  separate  bulletins  issued, 
especially  in  agricultural  lines.  Those  interested  should  write 
to  the  Division  of  Publications,  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.,  for  the  latest  "  List  of  Publica- 


428  THE   TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

tions  Available  for  Distribution,"  and  also  make  application  for 
the  "Monthly  List  of  Publications,"  to  be  sent  regularly  (free). 
Also  apply  to  Superintendent  of  Public  Documents  for  "  List 
of  Publications  for  Sale."  These  lists  will  give  full  information 
regarding  many  good  bulletins,  some  of  which  may  be  obtained 
free  upon  application,  and  others  at  small  cost.  Some  of  the 
most  useful  which  were  available  in  1902  are  named  below. 
Others  which  are  now  out  of  print  may  be  reprinted,  and  in 
that  event  will  be  noted  in  future  monthly  lists. 

The  complete  bibliographical  references  to  the  first  six 
books  are  given  on  pages  437  and  438. 

Miall,  L.  C.     Injurious  and  Useful  Insects. 

Smith,  J.  B.     Economic  Entomology. 

Sanderson,  E.  D.     Insects  Injurious  to  Staple  Crops. 

Shaler,  N.  S.     Domesticated  Animals. 

Wood,  J.  G.     The  Dominion  of  Man. 

Simmonds,  P.  L.  Animal  Products,  their  Preparation,  Commercial 
Uses  and  Values.  London,  Chapman  &  Hall.  1877.  Pp.  477. 

Bulletins  of  Division  of  Entomology.  Principal  household  insects  of 
United  States  (Bulletin,  No.  4,  n.  s.,  ice.) ;  Insects  affecting  domestic 
animals  (No.  5,  n.  s.,  2oc.);  Some  insects  injurious  to  garden  and 
orchard  crops  (No.  19,  n.  s.,  ioc.);  Some  insects  injurious  to  garden 
crops  (No.  23,  n.  s.,  ioc.);  Some  insects  injurious  to  vegetable  crops 
(No.  33,  n.  s.,  ioc.);  Hessian  fly  in  United  States  (No.  16,  n.  s.,  ioc.); 
Honey  bee  (No.  I,  n.  s.,  ISC.);  Destructive  locusts  (No.  25,  I5c.); 
Periodical  cicada  (No.  14,  n.  s.,  I5c.);  and  the  following  circulars 
which  are  free:  Hessian  fly  (No.  12);  Mosquitoes  and  fleas  (No.  13); 
House  ants  (No.  34);  House  flies  (No.  35)  ;  Clothes  moth  (No.  36) ; 
Bedbug  (No.  47);  House  centipede  (No.  48);  Cockroaches  (No.  51). 

Bulletins  of  Division  of  Biological  Survey.  Common  crow  (No.  6, 
ioc.);  Jack  rabbits  (No.  8,  ioc.);  Cuckoos  and  shrikes  (No.  9,  5c.) ; 
Food  of  bobolink,  blackbirds,  and  grackles  (No.  13,  5c.) ;  Relation  of 
sparrows  to  agriculture  (No.  15,  ioc.). 

Farmers'  Bulletins  (Free}.  Insects  injurious  to  stored  grain  (No.  45) ; 
Standard  varieties  of  chickens  (No.  51);  Some  common  birds  in  their 
relation  to  agriculture  (No.  54) ;  Bee-keeping  (No.  59)  ;  Ducks  and 
geese  (No.  64) ;  Insect  enemies  of  the  grape  (No.  70) ;  Three  insect  en- 
emies of  shade  trees  (No.  99);  Breeds  of  dairy  cattle  (No.  106) ;  How 
insects  affect  health  in  rural  districts  (No.  155). 

Extracts  from  Year-Books  (Free}.  Hawks  and  owls  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  farmer  (No.  10,  1894) ;  Danger  of  introducing  noxious 
animals  (No.  132,  1898) ;  Review  of  economic  entomology  in  United 


ZOOLOGICAL  BOOKS  429 

States  (No.  177,  1899);  The  food  of  nestling  birds  (No.  194,  1900); 
How  birds  affect  the  orchard  (No.  197,  1900) ;  The  prairie  dog  (No.  227, 
1901) ;  Insects  as  carriers  and  spreaders  of  disease  (No.  235,  1901). 

Bureau  of  Animal  Industry.  American  breeds  of  fowls  :  I.  The 
Plymouth  Rock  (No.  29,  150.)  ;  II.  The  Wyandotte  (No.  31,  I5c.). 

12.  Philosophical  Zoology  and  Evolution. 

An  intimate  knowledge  of  the  special  literature  of  this  phase 
of  biology  (for  here  it  is  practically  impossible  to  draw  a  sharp 
line  between  plants  and  animals),  dealing  as  it  does  with 
abstract  generalizations  deduced  from  the  known  facts,  is  not 
as  necessary  for  the  actual  work  of  the  teacher  in  the  high 
school  as  is  familiarity  with  the  leading  facts  of  morphology, 
physiology,  and  ecology,  which  are  essential  for  elementary 
work  in  the  science  of  zoology.  Nevertheless,  the  philosophi- 
cal phase  is  important  for  the  intellectual  growth  of  the 
teacher,  for  study  along  this  line  tends  to  deepen  vastly  the 
interest  in  the  great  problems  involved  in  the  science  of  life. 

Philosophical  zoology  has  its  broadest  outlook  in  such  works 
as  Spencer's  Principles  of  Biology,  Brooks's  Foundations  of 
Zoology,  and  stated  largely  in  terms  of  general  science  in  Pear- 
son's Grammar  of  Science.  But  these  will  have  more  signifi- 
cance for  the  reader  after  study  of  those  more  limited  phases 
of  philosophical  zoology  which  centre  directly  around  the 
theory  of  evolution. 

Spencer,  Herbert.  Principles  of  Biology.  London,  Williams  & 
Norgate.  New  York,  Appleton.  1864-1867.  Revised  edition,  1899.  2 
volumes.  $4.00. 

Brooks,  W.  K.  Foundations  of  Zoology.  New  York,  Macmillan, 
1899.  Pp.  339.  $2.50.  (A  philosophical  discussion  of  fundamental 
problems.) 

Pearson,  Karl.  Grammar  of  Science.  London,  Black.  New  York, 
Macmillan.  1892.  Second  revised  and  enlarged  edition,  1900.  Pp.  5.48. 
$2.50.  (Chapters  IX.,  X.,  and  XI.  are  biological ;  but  the  entire  work 
is  of  interest  to  workers  in  any  science.) 

The  place  of  honor  in  a  list  of  books  on  evolution  must  be 
assigned  to  Darwin's  great  biological  classic,  the  Origin  of 
Species.  However,  this  epoch-making  work  will  be  better  under- 


430  THE   TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

stood  and  appreciated  if  read  after  some  introduction  to  the 
lines  of  evidence  for  evolution.  As  such  an  introduction,  the 
first  volume  of  Darwin  and  after  Darwin,  by  Romanes,  and 
also  his  Scientific  Evidences  of  Organic  Evolution,  hold  very 
high  rank.  Other  important  and  well-written  elementary  ac- 
counts are  Clodd's  Story  of  Creation  and  his  Primer  of 
Evolution,  Bergen's  Primer  of  Darwinism,  Thomson's  Study  of 
Animal  Life,  Part  IV.,  and  also  his  Outlines  of  Zoology,  Chapter 
XXIX.  The  first  part  of  LeConte's  Evolution  is  a  clear 
exposition  of  the  general  theory  and  the  lines  of  evidence 
favoring  it. 

Darwin,  C.  E.  Origin  of  Species  by  means  of  Natural  Selection. 
London,  first  edition,  1859;  sixth,  1872.  London,  Murray.  Many  re- 
prints of  the  sixth  edition  are  on  the  market.  The  American  authorized 
edition  is  by  Appleton,  New  York,  in  one  and  two  volume  editions. 
($2.00  and  $4.00.) 

Romanes,  G.  J.  Darwin  and  After  Darwin.  London,  Longmans. 
Chicago,  Open  Court  Co.  1892.  Vol.  I.,  The  Darwinian  Theory,  pp. 
460,  figs.  125.  $2.00.  (Volumes  II.  and  III.  deal  with  the  debatable 
questions  relating  to  factors  of  evolution  and  appeal  only  to  special 
readers.) 

Romanes,  G.  J.  Scientific  Evidences  of  Organic  Evolution.  Lon- 
don, Macmillan.  5oc. 

Clodd,  E.  Primer  of  Evolution.  London,  Longmans.  1895.  Pp. 
186,  figs.  3.  75c. 

Clodd,  E.     Story  of  Creation.     Longmans.    $1.25. 

Bergen,  J.  Y.,  and  F.  D.  A  Primer  of  Darwinism  and  Organic 
Evolution.  Boston,  Lee  &  Shepard.  New  edition,  1890.  #1.25. 

Thomson,  J.  A.  Study  of  Animal  Life.  London,  Murray.  New 
York,  Scribner.  Third  edition,  1896.  $1.50. 

Thomson,  J.  A.  Outlines  of  Zoology.  London,  Pentland.  New 
York,  Appleton.  Third  edition,  1899. 

LeConte,  J.  Evolution  and  its  Relation  to  Religious  Thought. 
New  York,  Appleton.  Second  edition,  1891.  Pp.  382,  figs.  70.  $1.50. 

After  some  of  the  above  books  as  introductions,  followed  by 
the  Origin  of  Species,  the  reader  will  be  interested  in  Wallace's 
Darwinism^  Huxley's  Darwiniana,  and  Man's  Place  in 
Nature,  and  his  article,  "  Evolution,"  in  the  Encyclopedia 
Britannica,  Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestication  and  the 


ZOOLOGICAL  BOOKS  431 

Descent  of  Man,  by  Darwin,  and  the  part  on  evolution  in 
Herbert  Spencer's  masterful  Principles  of  Biology.  These  are 
the  great  pioneer  works  which  supported  the  Origin  of  Species 
so  convincingly  that  the  evidences  of  organic  evolution  have 
come  to  be  generally  accepted  even  beyond  the  limits  of  the 
scientific  world.  But  there  was  one  dissenter  even  among  the 
great  naturalists,  and  to  understand  Agassiz's  point  of  view  in 
opposition  to  organic  evolution  one  should  read  his  Methods 
of  Study  in  Natural  History. 

"Wallace,  A.  B.     Darwinism.     London,  Macmillan.     1890.     Pp.  494. 

Huxley,  T.  H.  Darwiniana.  Collection  of  essays  on  evolution 
(1859-1888).  New  York,  Appleton.  1895.  PP-  475-  $r-25- 

Huxley,  T.  H.  Man's  Place  in  Nature.  New  York,  Appleton. 
1863.  PP-  328>  figs-  32-  $1-25. 

Huxley,  T.  H.     Article,  "  Evolution,"  in  Encyclopedia  Britannica. 

Darwin,  C.  R.  Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestication.  London, 
Murray.  New  York,  Appleton.  Second  edition,  1875.  2  volumes. 

Pp-  473.  495-    #5-oo. 

Darwin,  C.  R.  Descent  of  Man.  Second  edition,  London,  1874. 
Many  reprints  are  on  the  market;  the  authorized  one  is  by  Appleton, 
New  York,  in  one  and  two  volume  editions.  Cheap  reprint  by  Burt, 
New  York. 

Agassiz,  Louis.  Methods  of  Study  in  Natural  History.  Boston, 
Houghton.  1863.  Eighteenth  edition,  1887.  Pp.  319.  $1.50.  (Agas- 
siz's famous  protest  against  the  evolution  theory.) 

Interest  in  the  factors  or  methods  of  evolution  naturally 
comes  after  study  of  the  evidences  for  the  truth  of  the  theory. 
Some  of  the  works  already  mentioned,  notably  Darwin's  Origin 
of  Species,  Spencer's  Principles  and  Wallace's  Darwinism  deal 
with  both  fact  and  factors.  In  addition,  there  has  been  de- 
veloped a  mass  of  special  literature  on  the  still  uncertain  ques- 
tions involved  in  the  factors  —  heredity,  variation,  natural 
selection,  etc.  It  is  difficult  to  select  one  volume  as  best  for 
the  beginning  study  of  the  factors  or  for  a  general  view  of  the 
whole  field.  Thomson  in  his  Science  of  Life  (see  under  His- 
tory of  Zoology,  p.  432)  succinctly  summarizes  the  points 
at  issue,  and  in  his  Study  of  Animal  Life  there  is  a  good 
literature  list  to  which  those  specially  interested  can  refer. 


432  THE   TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

Those  who  have  interest  in  the  ethical,  religious,  or  sociolog- 
ical bearings  of  evolution  will  find  the  great  questions  well  dis- 
cussed in  LeConte's  Evolution  and  Religious  Thought,  Fiske's 
Cosmic  Philosophy  and  his  Destiny  of  Man  with  its  companion 
volumes,  Huxley's  Evolution  and  Ethics,  Calderwood's  Evolu- 
tion and  Man's  Place  in  Nature,  and  Drummond's  Ascent  of 
Man. 

Fiske,  John.  Outlines  of  Cosmic  Philosophy.  Boston,  Houghton. 
4  volumes.  $8.00. 

Fiske,  John.  Destiny  of  Man,  Idea  of  God,  and  other  small  vol- 
umes in  the  same  series.  Same  publishers.  $1.00  each. 

Huxley,  T.  H.  Evolution  and  Ethics.  In  collected  essays  in 
volume  with  same  title,  New  York,  Appleton.  Also  in  POPULAR 
SCIENCE  MONTHLY,  Vol.  XLIV.,  November  and  December,  1893. 

Calderwood,  H.  Evolution  and  Man's  Place  in  Nature.  London, 
Macmillan.  1893. 

Drummond,  H.  Ascent  of  Man.  New  York,  Pott.  1894.  (Al- 
though not  always  as  rigidly  scientific  as  is  demanded  by  specialists  this 
book  has  proved  valuable  for  reading  by  those  not  specially  educated  in 
sciences.) 

1 3.    History  of  Zoology. 

The  only  extensive  special  history  of  the  science  of  zoology 
is  Carus's  Geschichte  der  Zob'logie  (1872),  but  this  is  valuable 
to  the  specialist  rather  than  to  the  general  student  of  the 
science.  The  leading  facts  may  be  found  in  the  works  named 
below.  The  first  is  especially  interesting,  and  should  be  read 
by  all  teachers  of  biology.  It  contains  an  excellent  list  of 
references,  to  historical  literature;  and  other  references  are 
given  in  the  Outlines  of  Zoology  by  the  same  author. 

Thomson,  J.  A.  The  Science  of  Life,  An  Outline  History  of  Bi- 
ology and  its  Recent  Advances.  London,  Blackie.  Chicago,  Stone. 
1899.  Pp.  246.  $1.25. 

Buckley,  A.  B.  A  Short  History  of  Natural  Science.  New  York, 
Appleton.  1888.  Pp.  467.  $2.00. 

Parker  and  Haswell.  Text-Book  of  Zoology.  Historical  section, 
Vol.  II.,  pp.  628-650. 

Hertwig,  R.  General  Principles  of  Zoology.  Translated  by  Field. 
New  York,  Holt.  1896.  Chapter  II.,  on  history  of  zoology. 

Lankester,  E.  B.     Article  "  Zoology,"  in  Encyclopaedia  Britannica. 


ZOOLOGICAL  BOOKS  433 

Closely  associated  with  the  history  of  zoology  is  the  history 
of  evolution  theories.  This  is  the  subject-matter  of  Clodd's 
Pioneers  of  Evolution  and  Osborn's  From  the  Greeks  to  Dar- 
win. Excellent  short  accounts  may  be  found  in  chapters  on 
"  Evolution  of  Evolution-Theories  "  in  Thomson's  Science  of 
Life  and  in  his  Study  of  Animal  Life  •  and  also  the  historical 
side  is  treated  in  the  chapter  on  "  Philosophical  Zoology  "  in 
Parker  and  Haswell's  Text-book  of  Zoology. 

Clodd,  E.  Pioneers  of  Evolution  (from  Thales  to  Huxley).  New 
York,  Appleton.  1897.  Pp.  274.  $1.50.  (Contains  good  pictures  of 
Darwin,  Huxley,  Spencer,  and  Wallace.) 

Osborn,  H.  F.  From  the  Greeks  to  Darwin.  An  Outline  of  the 
Development  of  the  Evolution  Idea.  New  York,  Macmillan.  1894. 
Pp.  259.  $2.00. 

Thomson,  J.  A.  Study  of  Animal  Life.  London,  Murray.  New 
York,  Scribner.  Third  edition,  1896.  $1.50. 

14.    Biography. 

Closely  associated  with  the  history  of  biology  are  the  biog- 
raphies of  the  leaders  in  the  development  of  the  science. 
Especially  interesting  in  connection  with  the  history  of  zoology 
in  the  nineteenth  century  are  the  lives  of  such  prominent  nat- 
uralists as  Darwin,  Huxley,  Agassiz,  and  Pasteur.  These  have 
been  honored  with  extensive  biographies.  For  sketches  of 
many  of  the  less  prominent  biologists  one  must  consult  articles 
in  magazines  and  in  the  proceedings  of  learned  societies.  The 
files  of  Nature  and  Popular  Science  Monthly,  and  the  Proceed- 
ings of  the  Royal  Society  of  London  are  especially  rich  in  bio- 
graphical notes  on  scientific  men  who  have  lived  within  the  last 
half-century. 

Darwin,  F.  Life  and  Letters  of  Charles  Darwin.  New  York,  Ap- 
pleton. 1887.  2  volumes,  pp.  558,  562.  $4.50. 

Darwin,  F.     Charles  Darwin's  Life.     N.  Y.,  Appleton.     $1.50. 

Allen,  Grant.  Darwin.  London,  Longmans.  1888.  Pp.  206. 
(Probably  the  best  short  biography  of  Darwin.) 

Bettany,  G.  T.  Darwin.  London,  W.  Scott.  1887.  Pp.  175  +  31. 
(Contains  a  list  of  Darwin's  works,  and  a  selected  bibliography  of  books 
and  magazine  articles  on  the  naturalist  and  his  work.) 

28 


434  THE   TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

Wallace,  A.  K.  Debt  of  Science  to  Darwin.  CENTURY  MAGAZINE, 
January,  1883. 

Huxley,  L.  Life  and  Letters  of  T.  H.  Huxley.  New  York,  Apple- 
ton.  1900.  2  volumes,  pp.  539,  541. 

Agassiz,  E.  C.  Louis  Agassiz,  his  Life  and  Correspondence.  Bos- 
ton, Houghton.  1885.  Pp.  794.  $2.50.  (After  this  eulogy  the  next 
work  should  be  read.) 

Marcou,  J.  Life,  Letters,  and  Work  of  L.  Agassiz.  New  York, 
Macmillan.  1895.  2  volumes,  pp.  302,  318. 

Jordan,  D.  S.  Agassiz  at  Penikese.  Chapter  in  volume  known  as 
Science  Sketches.  Chicago,  McClurg.  New  edition,  1896.  Also  in 
POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY,  Vol.  XL.,  pp.  721,  1892. 

Radot,  V.  Louis  Pasteur,  his  Life  and  Labors.  Translated  from 
the  French  by  Lady  Hamilton.  Introduction  by  John  Tyndall.  New 
York,  Appleton.  1886.  (Written  under  Pasteur's  supervision  by  his 
son-in-law,  Radot.) 

Frankland,  P.     Life  of  Pasteur.     London,  Macmillan. 

Nicholson,  H.  A.  Lives  and  Labors  of  Leading  Naturalists.  Edin- 
burg,  Chambers.  1890. 

Wright,  H.  A.     Children's   Stories  of  the  Great  Scientists.     New 
York,  Scribner.     1888. 


15.    Periodicals. 

SCHOOL  SCIENCE.  Chicago.  Monthly.  $2.00  per  year.  Important 
for  all  science  teachers  of  secondary  schools.  Contains  pedagogical  dis- 
cussions, reviews  of  new  books,  practical  notes,  reports  of  meetings  of 
teachers'  associations,  and  notes  on  advances  of  scientific  knowledge. 

JOURNAL  OF  APPLIED  MICROSCOPY  AND  LABORATORY  METHODS. 
Rochester,  N.  Y.  Six  volumes  published;  discontinued  in  December, 
1903.  Valuable  for  suggestions  on  laboratory  practice  and  teaching,  and 
descriptions  of  new  apparatus. 

SCIENCE.  New  York,  Macmillan.  Weekly.  $5.00  per  year.  Sent 
free  of  charge  to  members  of  the  American  Association  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Science.  (Concerning  application  for  membership  write  to  Dr. 
L.  O.  Howard,  Permanent  Secretary,  Washington,  D.  C.  All  science 
teachers  are  eligible.  Entrance  fee  is  $5.00  and  annual  dues  $3.00.) 
Interesting  to  all  American  workers  in  science  because  it  gives  reports 
of  meetings  of  the  important  scientific  societies,  scientific  addresses, 
reviews  of  recent  books  and  numerous  notes  on  science  progress  in 
general. 

AMERICAN  NATURALIST.  Boston,  Ginn  &  Co.  Monthly.  $4.00 
per  year.  Publishes  many  original  articles  of  general  interest  to  zool- 
ogists, and  also  abstracts  of  many  recent  articles. 

POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY.  New  York,  The  Science  Press. 
Monthly.  $5.00  per  year.  Devoted  to  non-technical  summaries  of  scien- 


ZOOLOGICAL  BOOKS  435 

tific  advances.      Many  biological  articles  of  general  interest  are  pub- 
lished. 

JOURNAL  OF  THE  ROYAL  MICROSCOPICAL  SOCIETY.  London.  Bi- 
monthly. Gives  special  attention  to  abstracts  of  leading  original  papers 
in  zoology,  botany,  and  microscopy.  Valuable  for  the  teacher  who 
wishes  to  keep  in  touch  with  the  progress  of  investigation.  Too  ex- 
pensive for  individual  subscription,  but  found  in  many  public  and  college 
libraries. 


1 6 .    Animal  Natural  History. 

In  presenting  facts  which  are  of  general  or  popular  interest, 
as  well  as  in  a  less  rigidly  technical  style,  the  books  of  this  list 
stand  in  contrast  to  those  of  the  preceding  pages,  most  of 
which  appeal  chiefly  to  special  students  of  the  science  of 
zoology.  Practically  all  the  books  here  named  are  of  inter- 
est to  the  adult  general  reader.  The  books  marked  with  an 
asterisk  (*)  are  especially  suitable  for  supplementary  reading 
by  high-school  pupils.  In  fact,  many  of  these  books  have  been 
reported  as  interesting  to  children  of  the  seventh  and  eighth 
grades  in  the  elementary  school.  Selected  parts  of  many  other 
books  intended  by  their  authors  to  appeal  primarily  to  adult 
readers  might  be  used  by  high-school  pupils ;  and  special 
references  to  many  of  these  are  given  in  the  outline  of  a 
course  in  Chapter  VIII.  Some  of  the  school  books  of  zoology 
named  on  page  444  are  such  excellent  introductions  to  animal 
natural  history  that  they  deserve  a  place  also  in  this  list  of  books 
for  reading  and  reference. 

General  Works. 

Hodge,  C.  F.  Nature  Study  and  Life.  Boston,  Ginn.  1902.  Pp. 
514,  figs.  196.  $1.50.  (Excellent  guide  to  nature-study.) 

IngersoD,  E.  Nature's  Calendar.  A  guide  and  record  for  outdoor 
observations.  New  York,  Harpers.  1900.  Pp.  270.  $1.50.  (Sug- 
gestions for  field  work  in  nature-study.) 

Johnson's  Universal  Cyclopedia.  Zoological  articles  edited  by  D.  S. 
Jordan  are  excellent  for  scientific  and  popular  names  and  notes  on 
American  animals. 

International  Encyclopedia.  New  York,  Dodd,  Mead.  1902.  Zoo- 
logical articles  under  the  supervision  of  well-known  American  zoologists. 


436  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

Jordan,  D.  S.,  and  Kellogg,  V.  L.  *Animal  Life.  New  York,  Apple- 
ton.  1900.  Pp.  329,  figs.  1 80.  $1.20.  (An  introduction  to  animal 
ecology). 

Jordan,  D.  S.,  and  Heath,  H.  *Animal  Forms.  New  York,  Apple- 
ton.  1902.  Pp.  258,  figs.  140.  $1.10.  This  book  and  the  preceding  are 
also  bound  in  one  volume  with  the  title  "  Animals."  Excellent. 

Kingsley,  J.  S.,  Editor.  *Riverside  Natural  History  (formerly  known 
as  the  Standard).  Boston,  Houghton.  6  volumes,  $30.00.  (The  best 
extensive  work  giving  attention  to  American  animals.) 

Margesson,  Lady.  Editor.  *Handbook  of  Natural  History  for  Use 
of  Beginners.  London,  G.  Philip.  1894.  (Some  well-known  contrib- 
utors.) 

Morgan,  C.  L.  *Animal  Sketches.  London,  Arnold.  1891.  New 
York,  Longmans.  Pp.  312.  (A  series  of  interesting  sketches  of  some 
twenty  commonly  known  animals,  vertebrates  and  invertebrates.) 

Thomson,  J.  A.  *The  Study  of  Animal  Life.  London,  Murray. 
New  York,  Scribner.  Third  edition,  1896.  Pp.  375.  (Part  I.  is  an  ex- 
cellent introduction  to  natural  history.) 

Wood,  J.  G.  *A11  the  books  on  general  natural  history  by  this 
author  are  interesting.  Longmans,  New  York. 

Books  on  Lower  Animals,  Chiefly  Insects. 

Badenoch,  L.  N.  Romance  of  the  Insect  World.  London,  Mac- 
millan.  1893.  Pp.  341,  figs.  60. 

Ballard,  J.  P.    *Moths  and  Butterflies.     New  York,  Putnams.    $1.50. 

Buckley,  A.  B.  *Life  and  Her  Children,  Glimpses  of  Animal  Life 
from  Amoeba  to  Insects.  London,  Stanford.  New  York,  Appleton. 
$1.50. 

Comstock,  J.  H.  Insect  Life.  New  York,  Appleton.  1897.  Pp. 
349,  illus.  296.  $1.50.  Edition  in  colors.  $1.75. 

Cragin,  B.  S.  *Our  Insect  Friends  and  Foes.  New  York,  Putnams. 
1899.  Pp.  374,  figs.  235.  $1.75. 

Darwin,  C.  Vegetable  Mould  and  Earthworms.  New  York,  Apple- 
ton.  Also  in  Humboldt  Library  of  Science.  $1.50. 

Emerton,  J.  H.  *The  Structure  and  Habits  of  Spiders.  Boston. 
1878.  Pp.  118,  illus.  67.  (For  sale  by  Knight  &  Millet,  Boston.) 

Emerton,  J.  H.  Common  Spiders  of  the  United  States.  Boston, 
Ginn.  1902.  Pp.  225. 

Emerton,  J.  H.  Life  on  the  Seashore.  Salem,  1880.  A  convenient 
popular  guide  to  animals  of  the  New  England  coast.  (For  sale  by 
Knight  &  Millet,  Boston,  $1.50.) 

Gibson,  W.  H.  *Eye  Spy,  *Sharp  Eyes,  and  other  books.  New 
York,  Harper. 

Hyatt,  A.,  and  others.  Guides  for  Science  Teaching.  Boston, 
Heath.  III.  Commercial  and  Other  Sponges.  1886.  2oc.  V.  Corals 
and  Echinoderms.  1889.  2oc.  VI.  Molluska  (oyster,  clam).  1888. 
2c.  VII.  Worms  and  Crustacea.  1888.  2c. 


ZOOLOGICAL  BOOKS  437 

Heilprin,  A.  *Animal  Life  of  our  Seashore.  Philadelphia,  Lippin- 
cott.  1888.  Pp.  130,  many  illustrations.  $1.25.  (Animals  of  coast  of 
New  Jersey  and  southern  Long  Island.) 

HoUand,  W.  J.  *The  Butterfly  Book.  New  York,  Doubleday. 
1898.  Pp.  382.  48  plates  in  color  photography.  $3.00.  (Butterflies  of 
North  America.) 

HoUand,  W.  J.     *  The  Moth  Book.    1903.    Pp.  400,  48  plates.    $4.00. 

Howard,  L.  O.  *The  Insect  Book.  New  York,  Doubleday.  1901. 
Pp.  429,  plates  48.  (North  American  insects  exclusive  of  butterflies 
moths,  and  beetles.)  $3.00. 

Lubbock  (now  Lord  Avebury).  Ants,  Bees,  and  Wasps.  London, 
Kegan  Paul.  New  York,  Appleton.  $2.00. 

Miall,  L.  C.  Natural  History  of  Aquatic  Insects.  London,  Mac- 
millan.  1895.  Pp.  395.  $1.75. 

Miall,  L.  C.  ^Injurious  and  Useful  Insects,  An  Introduction  to  the 
Study  of  Economic  Entomology.  London,  Macmillan.  1902.  Pp.  256. 
$1.00. 

Needham,  J.  G.  ^Outdoor  Studies.  American  Book  Co.  1898. 
Pp.  90,  figs.  88.  4oc.  (Deals  chiefly  with  insects.) 

Sanderson,  E.  D.  Insects  Injurious  to  Staple  Crops.  New  York, 
Wiley.  1902.  Pp.  295,  figs.  162.  #1.50. 

Scudder,  S.  H.  *Everyday  Butterflies.  Boston,  Houghton.  1899. 
Pp-  39T>  71  illustrations.  $2.00. 

Smith,   J.   B.      Economic  Entomology.      Philadelphia,   Lippincott. 

1896.  Pp.  480,  figs.  483.     $2.50. 

Van  Beneden,  P.  J.  Animal  Parasites  and  Messmates.  London, 
Kegan  Paul.  New  York,  Appleton.  Pp.  274,  illus,  83.  #1.50. 

Weed,  C.  M.  *Life  Histories  of  American  Insects.  New  York, 
Macmillan.  1897.  Pp.  272,  21  full-page  plates  and  94  figures  in  text. 
(About  twenty-five  interesting  common  insects.)  $1.50. 

Weed,  C.  M.  *The  Insect  World.  New  York,  Appleton.  1899. 
6oc. 

Weed,  C.  M.     ^Stories  of  Insect  Life.     First  series.     Boston,  Ginn. 

1897.  Pp.  54,  figs.  51.     25c. 

Weed,  C.  M.  *Nature  Biographies.  New  York,  Doubleday.  1901. 
Pp.  164,  150  photographic  illustrations.  (Lives  of  some  every-day 
insects.) 

Murtfeldt,  M.  E.,  and  Weed,  C.  M.  *Stories  of  Insect  Life. 
Second  series.  Boston,  Ginn.  1899.  Pp.  72,  figs.  34.  3<DC. 

Wood,  J.  G.     Insects  Abroad.     New  York,  Longmans. 

Books  on  Backboned  Animals. 

Buckley,  A.  B.  *Winners  in  Life's  Race,  or  the  Great  Backboned 
Family.  London,  Stanford.  New  York,  Appleton.  $1.50. 

Darwin,  C.  Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestication.  New  York, 
Appleton.  $5.00.  (Contains  much  interesting  natural  history  of  domes- 
ticated animals,  especially  birds  and  mammals.) 


7V7.fi:    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

Ingersoll,  E.  *Wild  Life  of  Orchard  and  Field.  New  York,  Har- 
per. 1902.  Pp.  346,  25  illustrations  from  photographs.  $1.40. 

Jordan,  D.  S.,  and  Evermann,  B.  W.  =*American  Food  and  Game 
Fishes.  New  York,  Doubleday.  1902.  Pp.  573.  Many  colored  plates 
and  half-tones  from  excellent  photographs  by  Dugmore.  $4.00. 

Lucas,  F.  A.  #Animals  of  the  Past.  New  York,  McClure,  Phillips. 
1902.  $2.00.  (Good  popular  account  of  palaeontology.) 

Mathews,  S.  *Familiar  Life  in  Field  and  Forest.  New  York, 
Appleton.  1898.  Pp.  284,  many  illustrations.  $175.  (Mammals, 
birds,  frogs,  and  salamanders.) 

Mivart,  St.  G.  The  Common  Frog.  London,  Macmillan.  1881. 
Pp.  158.  (Now  out  of  print  and  obtainable  only  from  dealers  in  old 
books.) 

Mivart,  St.  G.  *American  Types  of  Animal  Life.  Boston,  Little, 
Brown.  1891.  Pp.  374,  illus.  102.  (Deals  with  animals  peculiar  to 
America  —  opossum,  turkey,  bison,  raccoon,  sea-lion,  bullfrog,  rattle- 
snake, sloth,  and  many  others.) 

Shaler,  N.  S.  *Domesticated  Animals,  their  Relation  to  Man  and  to 
his  Advancement  in  Civilization.  New  York,  Scribners.  1895.  Pp- 
267.  $2.50.  (Mammals,  birds,  bee,  silkworm.) 

Sharp,  D.  L.  *Wild  Life  near  Home.  New  York,  Century  Co. 
1901.  Pp.  357,  many  illustrations.  $2.00.  (Birds  and  mammals,  fish, 
frogs.)  *A  Watcher  in  the  Woods  is  an  abridged  edition  for  schools. 

Wood,  J.  G.  *The  Dominion  of  Man.  London,  Bentley.  1889. 
Pp.  400.  (Domesticated  and  tamed  animals  useful  to  man.) 

Birds. 

Bird  Lore.  A  bi-monthly  magazine.  New  York,  Macmillan.  $1.00 
per  year. 

Blanchan,  Neltje  (Mrs.  F.  N.  Doubleday).  *Bird  Neighbors.  New 
York,  Doubleday.  1898.  Pp.  234,  52  colored  plates.  $2.00.  (150  com- 
mon birds.) 

Blanchan,  Neltje.  *Birds  that  Hunt  and  are  Hunted.  New  York, 
Doubleday.  1899.  Pp.  359,  48  colored  plates.  $2.00.  (170  birds  of 
prey,  game  birds,  and  waterfowl.) 

Blanchan,  N.   How  to  Attract  the  Birds.  New  York,  Doubleday.  $1.35. 

Chapman,  F.  M.  *Bird-Life.  A  guide  to  study  of  our  common 
birds.  New  York,  Appleton.  1897.  Pp.  270,  75  full-page  plates  from 
drawings  by  Thompson-Seton.  Popular  edition,  1901,  has  plates  in  colors 
and  appendix  for  teachers.  $2.00.  (An  excellent  introduction  to  birds.) 

Chapman,  F.  M.  *Bird  Studies  with  a  Camera.  New  York,  Apple- 
ton.  1900.  Pp.  218,  100  photographs  from  nature.  $1.75. 

Herrick,  F.  H.  *Home  Life  of  Wild  Birds.  New  York,  Putnam. 
$2.50  (Numerous  photographs.  Suggestions  for  study  of  the  birds.) 

Merriam,  F.  A.  (Mrs.  Bailey).  Birds  of  Village  and  Field.  Bos- 
ton, Houghton.  1898.  Pp.  398,  figs.  228,  and  28  plates.  $2.00.  (Con- 


ZOOLOGICAL  BOOKS  439 

tains  excellent  outlines  for  field  observations  and  a  list  of  books  on 
birds.) 

Parkhurst,  H.  E.  Song  Birds  and  Waterfowl.  New  York,  Scrib- 
ners.  1877.  Pp-  2$5-  Illustrated  by  L.  A.  Fuertes.  $1.50. 

Weed,  C.  M.,  and  Dearborn,  N.  Birds  in  their  Relation  to  Man. 
Philadelphia,  Lippincott.  1903.  Pp.  378.  Illustrated.  $2.50. 

Wright,  M.  O.,  and  Coues,  E.     *Citizen  Bird.     New  York,  Mac- 
millan.     1897.     Pp.  428,  figs,  in,  by  L.  A.  Fuertes.     $1.50. 
(Plain  English  for  beginners.) 

Wright,  M.  O.  *Birdcraft.  A  field  book  of  200  birds.  New  York, 
Macmillan.  1895.  Pp.  306,  30  full-page  plates  in  color.  $2.50. 

Mammals, 

In  addition  to  the  more  general  books  by  Buckley,  Matthews,  Inger- 
soll,  Mivart,  and  others,  which  are  named  above,  the  following  deal  par- 
ticularly with  the  mammals. 

Baker,  S.  W.  *Wild  Beasts  and  Their  Ways.  London,  Macmillan. 
1890,  1898.  Pp.  455. 

Burroughs,  J.  *Squirrels  and  other  Fur-bearers.  Boston,  Hough 
ton.  1900.  $1.00. 

Flower,  W.  H.     The  Horse.    New  York,  Appleton.    (Out  of  print.) 

Ingersoll,  E.  *Wild  Neighbors,  Outdoor  Studies  in  the  United 
States.  New  York,  Macmillan.  1897.  Pp.  301.  $1.50.  (Squirrels, 
puma,  coyote,  badger,  porcupine,  skunk,  wooden uck,  raccoon.) 

Long.  *Ways  of  Wood  Folk.  *School  of  the  Woods.  *Wilderness 
Ways,  and  similar  books.  Boston,  Ginn.  (Interesting  stories  of  wild 
animals  interpreted  from  the  human  viewpoint.  See  criticism  by  John 
Burroughs  in  ATLANTIC  MONTHLY,  March,  1903,  and  reply  by  Long  in 
NORTH  AMERICAN  REVIEW,  May,  1903.) 

Stone,  W.,  and  Cram,  W.  E.  *American  Animals.  New  York, 
Doubleday.  1902.  Pp.  318.  #3.00.  (Mammals  of  North  America,  north 
of  Mexico  with  sketches  of  the  more  familiar  species.  Splendidly  illus- 
trated from  photographs  and  drawings.) 

Wallihan,  A.  S.  *Camera  Shots  at  Big  Game.  New  York,  Double- 
day.  1901.  Pp.  77.  (Recommended  for  its  beautiful  illustrations.) 
$10.00. 

Wright,  M.  O.  *Four-Footed  Americans.  New  York,  Macmillan. 
1898.  Pp.  413.  Many  illustrations  by  Thompson-Seton.  $1.50.  (Well 
adapted  to  young  readers.  Simple  key  to  North  American  Mammals.) 

17.    General  Natural  History. 

The  books  named  above  represent  only  the  animal  side  of 
natural  history.  But  the  real  student  of  nature  will  feel  the 
need  of  books  with  a  greater  outlook  upon  all  living  and  life- 


440  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

less  things.  Such  may  be  found  in  many  books  which  have 
an  established  place  in  English  literature.  The  titles  of  many 
of  them  are  generally  familiar;  but  in  these  days  when  new 
books  are  demanded  there  is  danger  that  the  contents  of  many 
of  these  classics  may  remain  unknown  to  the  younger  gen- 
eration of  readers.  Perhaps  the  most  interesting  books  are 
those  which  reflect  the  personal  environment  of  their  authors. 
"  One's  own  landscape,"  says  John  Burroughs,  "  comes  in  time 
to  be  a  sort  of  outlying  part  of  himself.  .  .  .  This  is  one  source 
of  Gilbert  White's  charm,  and  of  the  charm  of  Thoreau's 
Wa/den"  —  and  we  may  add  that  this  is  the  charm  of  the 
best  of  the  books  by  Burroughs  himself.  The  most  famous 
book  of  this  class  is  Gilbert  White's  Natural  History  of 
Selborne,  first  published  in  1789,  and  now  available  in  many 
modern  editions.  Thoreau's  Walden  (Houghton,  Mifflin)  gives 
the  best  view  of  the  writings  of  this  naturalist.  The  best  intro- 
duction to  the  books  of  John  Burroughs  is  a  book  of  selections 
entitled  A  Year  in  the  Fields  (Houghton,  Mifflin).  After  this 
the  reader  will  want  his  Wake  Robin  (1871)  ;  Locusts  and  Wild 
Honey  (1879) ;  Signs  and  Seasons  (1886)  ;  Riverby  (1894)  ;  and 
others  published  by  Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.,  at  $1.25  per 
volume.  The  same  publishers  issue  some  of  Burroughs's  essays 
in  pamphlet  form  for  use  in  schools,  price  fifteen  cents  each. 

Among  the  numerous  books  by  traveller-naturalists  the  follow- 
ing contain  much  of  interest  to  the  student  of  biology :  Bates's 
The  Naturalist  on  the  River  Amazon  (1863),  (good  edition 
by  Appleton,  a  cheap  one  in  Humboldt  Library  of  Science)  ; 
Darwin's  Voyage  of  the  Beagle  (Appleton)  ;  Belt's  Naturalist  in 
Nicaraugua  ;  Hudson's  Naturalist  in  La  Plata  and  Idle  Days 
in  Patagonia  (Appleton)  ;  Drummond's  Tropical  Africa  (Scrib- 
ner)  ;  Agassiz's  A  Journey  in  Brazil. 

2.    Special  Lists  of  Selected  Books. 
a.    Limited  Selection  of  Books  for  a  School  Library. 
The  limited  list  of  books  given  below  includes  those  which 
appeal  to  the  writer  as  most  important  in  a  library  for  the  use 


ZOOLOGICAL  BOOKS  441 

of  pupils.  The  following  lists  of  books  for  teachers  should  be 
added,  because  they  too  are  valuable  to  students.  They  should 
be  at  hand  so  that  the  teacher  can  cite  paragraphs  and  espe- 
cially illustrations  for  reference.  With  the  growth  of  the  school 
library,  it  will  be  desirable  to  add  many  others  from  the  list 
on  natural  history. 

Blanchan.     Bird  Neighbors. 

Chapman.     Bird  Life. 

Comstock.     Insect  Life. 

Conn.     Story  of  Germ  Life. 

Davenport.     Introduction  to  Zoology. 

French.     Animal  Activities. 

Hodge.     Nature  Study  and  Life. 

Holland.     Butterfly  Book. 

Harvey.     Introduction  to  Study  of  Zoology. 

Jordan  and  Evermann.     American  Fishes. 

Jordan  and  Kellogg.     Animal  Life. 

Jordan  and  Heath.     Animal  Forms. 

Kellogg.     Elementary  Zoology. 

Kingsley.     Comparative  Zoology. 

Martin.     Human  Body,  Briefer  Course. 

Miall.     Injurious  and  Useful  Insects. 

Morse.     First  Book  in  Zoology. 

Needham.     Lessons  in  Zoology.     Outdoor  Studies. 

Prudden.    Story  of  Bacteria.    Dust  and  its  Dangers.    Water  and  Ice. 

Romanes.     Darwin  and  After  Darwin.     Vol.  I. 

Scudder.     Everyday  Butterflies. 

Shaler.     Domesticated  Animals. 

Sharp.     Wild  Life  Near  Home.     A  Watcher  in  the  Woods. 

Stone  and  Cram.     American  Animals. 

Thomson.     Study  of  Animal  Life. 

Weed.     Life  Histories  of  American  Insects.     Stories  of  Insect  Life. 

Wright.     Four-Footed  Americans. 

b.   Limited  Selection  of  Books  on  Animals  for  the  Teacher  of 
Nature-Study. 

All  the  books  on  natural  history  named  on  earlier  pages  are 
useful  to  teachers  of  nature  study  in  the  elementary  school ; 
but  those  of  the  following  list  are,  in  the  opinion  of  the  writer, 
of  exceptional  value.  The  list  below  gives  a  general  survey 
of  the  field,  and  additions  from  the  larger  list  on  natural  history 


442  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

must  depend  upon  the  reader's  interest.  This  list  aims  to 
include  only  books  giving  information  about  animals ;  for 
special  literature  on  the  teaching  of  nature  study,  see  Chapter 
IV. 

Hodge.     Nature  Study  and  Life. 
Thomson.     Study  of  Animal  Life. 
Jordan,  Kellogg,  and  Heath.     Animals. 
Chapman.     Bird  Life. 
Comstock.     Insect  Life. 
Needham.     Outdoor  Studies. 
Wright.     Four-Footed  Americans. 

c.   Limited  Selection  of  Books  for  the  Teacher  of  Zoology. 

This  is  a  selected  list  of  the  most  indispensable  books,  such 
as  a  beginning  teacher  or  student  of  general  zoology  will  wish 
to  purchase  for  the  foundation  of  a  private  library.  I  would 
preface  the  list  with  the  preceding  one  on  nature-study. 

Parker  and  Haswell.     Text-Book  of  Zoology. 

Thomson.     Outlines  of  Zoology. 

Parker.     Elementary  Biology. 

Parker  and  Parker.     Practical  Zoology. 

Sedgwick  and  Wilson.     General  Biology. 

Hertwig.     General  Principles  of  Zoology. 

Marshall.     Vertebrate  Embryology. 

Huxley.     Lessons  in  Physiology. 

Huxley.     The  Crayfish  (The  Study  of  Zoology). 

Stewart.     Manual  of  Physiology. 

Newman.     The  Bacteria. 

Pyle.     Personal  Hygiene. 

Morgan.     Animal  Behavior. 

Romanes.     Darwin  and  After  Darwin.     Vol.  I. 

Darwin.     Origin  of  Species. 

Thomson.     Science  of  Life. 

Huxley.     Science  and  Education  Essays  (Appleton). 

3.   Text-books  and  Guides  for  Zoology  and  Physiology  in  Second- 
ary Schools. 

a.   Books  on  Zoology. 

This  list  names  most  of  the  books  in  zoology  for  secondary 
schools  which  have  been  published  within  thirty  years.  Most 
of  the  older  ones  of  these  are  still  common  in  the  school 


ZOOLOGICAL  BOOKS  443 

libraries,  and,  in  fact,  with  few  exceptions,  all  are  in  the  market 
to-day.  The  list  is  arranged  in  the  chronological  order  of 
publication  of  the  books. 

Hooker,  W.  Natural  History.  New  York,  Harper.  1860.  Pp. 
382,  figs.  278.  (A  text-book,  a  type  of  the  old-time  text-books  on 
animals.) 

Tenney,  S.  and  A.  A.  Natural  History  of  Animals.  New  York, 
American  Book  Co.  1866.  Pp.  260,  520  woodcuts.  (An  interesting 
account  of  common  animals.  Still  useful  for  reading.) 

Morse,  E.  S.  First  Book  of  Zoology.  New  York,  American  Book 
Co.  1875  Pp.  190,  168  excellent  illustrations.  87C.  (A  reading  book 
arranged  so  as  to  lead  pupils  to  observe.  Excellent.) 

Packard,  A.  S.  Zoology,  Briefer  Course.  New  York,  Holt.  First 
edition,  1883;  seventh,  1897.  Pp.  364,  figs.  338.  $1.12  (A  text-book.) 

Holder,  C.  F.  and  J.  B.  Elements  of  Zoology.  New  York,  Apple- 
ton.  1884.  Pp.  391,  figs.  383.  (A  text-book.) 

Colton,  B.  P.  Practical  Zoology.  Boston,  Heath.  1886.  Pp.  185. 
6oc.  New  edition  (1903)  referred  to  below.  This  was  the  pioneer 
laboratory  guide  for  high  schools.  Chiefly  anatomical.) 

Packard,  A.  S.  First  Lessons  in  Zoology.  New  York,  Holt.  1886. 
Pp.  290,  figs.  266.  (An  excellent  text-book  in  its  day.) 

Steele,  J.  D.,  and  Jenks,  J.  W.  P.  Popular  Zoology.  New  York, 
American  Book  Co.  1887.  Pp.  319,  figs.  480.  (A  text-book.) 

Montmahon  and  Beauregard.  A  Course  in  Zoology  for  Secondary 
Education.  Translated  from  French  by  W.  H.  Green.  Philadelphia, 
Lippincott.  1892.  Pp.  358,  figs.  319.  (A  type  of  the  text-book  which 
has  been  used  in  France  for  more  than  seventy  years.  The  general  plan 
appears  to  have  remained  unchanged  since  the  time  of  Cuvier.) 

Pillsbury,  J.  H.  A  Laboratory  Guide  in  General  Biology.  Boston. 
1894. 

Dodge,  C.  "W.  Elementary  Practical  Biology.  New  York,  Amer- 
ican Book  Co.  1894.  (A  laboratory  guide  for  animals  and  plants  in- 
tended for  high  school  and  college.) 

Boyer,  E.  B.  Elementary  Biology.  Boston,  Heath.  1894.  Pp. 
235.  8oc.  Part  T.  deals  with  animals.  (A  laboratory  guide.  Almost 
entirely  anatomical.) 

Needham,  J.  G.  Elementary  Lessons  in  Zoology.  New  York, 
American  Book  Co.  1895.  ^P-  3°2-  9OC-  (A  text-book  and  laboratory 
guide.  The  text  presents  a  good  general  view  of  the  field  of  zoology. 
Laboratory  work  is  chiefly  anatomical.  Excellent  on  field  work,  espe- 
cially on  insects.) 

Chapin,  H.  E.,  and  Rettger,  M.  A.  Elementary  Zoology  and 
Laboratory  Guide.  Chicago,  Engelhard.  1896.  Pp.  212,  fi?s.  144. 

Kingsley,  J.  S.  Elements  of  Comparative  Zoology.  New  York, 
Holt.  1897.  Pp.  355,  figs.  148.  $1.20.  (Text-book  and  laboratory 


444  THE   TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

guide.  Text  excellent  for  general  accounts  of  animals.  Laboratory 
work  is  entirely  anatomical.) 

Beddard,  F.  E.  Elementary  Zoology.  London  and  New  York, 
Longmans.  1898.  Pp.  208,  figs.  93.  (Review  in  SCIENCE,  March,  1899. 
A  text-book.) 

Davenport,  C.  B.  and  G.  C.  Introduction  to  Zoology.  New  York, 
Macmillan.  1900.  Pp.  412,  figs.  311.  $1.10.  (Review  in  SCIENCE, 
n.  s.,  Vol.  XII.,  p.  442.  September,  1900.  A  text-book  with  appendix 
on  practical  work.  Exclusively  devoted  to  natural  history.) 

Walter,  Whitney,  and  Lucas.  Studies  of  Animal  Life.  Boston, 
Heath.  1900.  Pp.  106.  5<Dc.  (Review  in  AMERICAN  NATURALIST, 
May,  1901.  A  laboratory  guide,  chiefly  on  external  structure  and 
ecology  of  living  animals.) 

Kellogg,  V.  L.  Elementary  Zoology.  New  York,  Holt.  1901. 
Pp.  492,  figs.  172.  $1.20.  (A  text-book  and  guide.  Text  gives  a 
general  view  of  the  field  of  zoology.  Laboratory  work  is  anatomical  and 
ecological.) 

Harvey,  N.  A.  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Zoology.  New  York, 
American  Book  Co.  1901.  Pp.  208,  figs.  35.  8oc.  (A  guide  to  prac- 
tical study,  with  additional  notes.  Chiefly  anatomical.  Contains  many 
useful  pedagogical  suggestions.) 

French,  N.  S.     Animal  Activities.     New  York,  Longmans,   Green. 

1901.  Pp.  262,  figs.  196.    $1.20.    (Review  in  SCHOOL  SCIENCE,  January, 
1903.     A  text-book  and  guide  in  natural  history.) 

Jordan,  D.  S.,  and  Kellogg,  V.  Jj.  Animal  Life.  New  York,  Apple- 
ton.  1900.  Pp.  329,  figs.  1 80.  $1.20.  (A  text-book  on  animal  ecology.) 

Jordan,  D.  S.,  and  Heath,  H.  Animal  Forms.  New  York,  Apple- 
ton.  1902.  Pp.  258,  figs.  140.  $1.10.  (Review  in  AMERICAN  NATU- 
RALIST, October,  1902.  A  text-book  dealing  with  animal  structure,  with 
some  reference  to  functions,  habits,  and  life-history.) 

Jordan,  Kellogg,  and  Heath.  Animals  ($1.80),  and  Animal  Studies 
($1.25).  The  first  book,  Animals,  consists  of  Animal  Life  and  Animal 
Forms,  bound  together,  and  the  second  is  composed  of  selections  from 
these  with  some  modifications. 

Jordan  and  Price.  Animal  Structures.  New  York,  Appleton. 
1903.  Pp.  TOO.  750.  (A  laboratory  guide  for  studies  of  structure  of 
Amoeba,  Paramoecium,  starfish,  Hydra,  earthworm,  crayfish,  grasshopper, 
mussel,  toad.  Too  much  detailed  anatomy  for  high-school  work.  It, 
however,  contains  useful  suggestions  for  teachers  in  secondary  schools.) 

Merrill,  J.  A.     Studies  in  Zoology.     New  York,  American  Book  Co. 

1902.  (A  laboratory  guide.     Emphasizes  anatomy  and  classification.) 
Weed,  C.  M.,  and  Grossman,  E.  W.     A  Laboratory  Guide  for  Be- 
ginners in  Zoology.      Boston,  Heath.     1902.     Pp.  105.     (Special  atten- 
tion given  to  structure  and  classification.) 

Dodge,  C.  W.      General  Zoology.     New  York,  American  Book  Co. 

1903.  (This  text-book   is   based  on  Orton's  Zoology  (1876),  and  the 


ZOOLOGICAL  BOOKS  44$ 

remains  of  the  old  book  are  so  prominent  that  the  change  of  author's 
name  is,  to  say  the  least,  unjustifiable.) 

Colton,  B.  P.  Zoology,  Descriptive  and  Practical.  Boston,  Heath. 
1903.  Part  I.,  Descriptive.  Pp.  375,  figs.  200.  $1.00.  Part  II.,  Practical. 
6oc.  The  two  parts  are  also  bound  together.  $1.50.  (This  revision  of 
the  earlier  edition  of  the  practical  part  is  improved  by  adding  directions 
for  study  of  living  animals  in  field  and  laboratory.  It  is  still  largely 
anatomical.  The  text  gives  a  general  view  of  the  field  of  zoology.) 

Kellogg,  V.  L.  First  Lessons  in  Zoology.  New  York,  Holt.  1903. 
Pp.  363,  figs.  257.  $1.12.  (A  text-book  and  guide  for  study  of  natural 
history  of  common  animals.) 

The  books  by  Needham,  Colton,  Kingsley,  Davenport,  Kel- 
logg, and  Jordan,  Kellogg,  and  Heath,  are  in  the  writer's  opin- 
ion the  best  of  the  available  books  for  use  in  secondary  schools. 
Copies  of  all  these  should  be  on  the  reference  shelf.  A  com- 
parative study  of  these  books  will  prove  invaluable  to  teachers. 
Needham's  Zoology,  Colton's  new  Zoology,  and  Kellogg's  Ele- 
mentary Zoology  are  the  most  useful  books  combining  text  and 
practical  work  in  general  zoology  for  pupils'  use.  Animal  Life 
and  Animal  Forms  are  beyond  question  the  best  existing 
books  for  pupil's  supplementary  reading.  Davenport's  Intro- 
duction, Kellogg's  Lessons,  and  French's  Animal  Activities 
are  the  best  guides  for  a  course  in  natural  history.  Special 
booklets  of  suggestions  to  teachers  accompany  Animal  Life, 
Walter,  Whitney,  and  Lucas's  Studies,  and  Colton's  new 
Zoology.  Jordan  and  Price's  Animal  Structures,  Kellogg's 
books,  and  French's  Animal  Activities  have  similar  materials 
'in  appendices. 

b.  Text-books  of  Elementary  Human  Physiology. 
[NOTE.]  This  list  includes  the  most  important  current  text-books 
which  are  much  used  in  schools.  No  attempt  is  made  to  compile  a  com- 
plete bibliography  of  American  text-books  on  this  subject.  It  would  be 
a  thankless  task  to  catalogue  the  large  number  of  "  physiologies  "  for 
schools  which  have  been  published  since  1880,  most  of  which  are  on  the 
market  to-day.  One  publishing  house  alone  had  over  thirty  text-books  of 
"physiology"  for  public  schools  in  print  last  year;  and  probably  more 
than  one  hundred  for  all  grades  between  primary  and  high  school  are 
now  in  the  American  market.  Many  of  these  are  simply  compilations  of 
no  special  merit  by  authors  who  have  had  rather  limited  experience  both 
as  students  and  teachers  of  physiology. 


446  THE   TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 


Books  for  High  School: 

Blaisdell,  A.  F.  Practical  Physiology.  Boston,  Ginn.  1897.  Pp. 
448,  illus.  170.  $1.10. 

Brinckley,  W.  J.  Physiology  by  the  Laboratory  Method.  For 
Secondary  Schools.  Chicago,  Ainsworth.  1903.  Pp.  536,  figs.  181. 
$1.25.  (Contains  some  good  suggestions  for  teachers;  but,  on  the 
whole,  the  book-  is  not  well  adapted  for  use  by  high-school  pupils, 
because  there  is  too  much  which  is  technical  and  non-essential.) 

Brown,  B.  M.  Physiology  for  the  Laboratory.  Boston,  Ginn. 
1900.  Pp.  167,  figs.  19.  75c.  (Suggestive  for  teachers  of  physiology.) 

Colton,  B.  P.  Physiology,  Experimental  and  Descriptive.  Boston, 
Heath.  1897.  Pp.  399,  illus.  103.  $1.12.  (Contains  numerous  practi- 
cal suggestions.  Pedagogically  it  is  one  of  the  best  books  in  this 
line.) 

Cutter,  J.  C.  Comprehensive  Anatomy,  Physiology,  and  Hygiene. 
Philadelphia,  Lippincott.  1884,  1888.  Pp.  375,  illus.  142.  #1.00. 

Foster,  M.t  and  Shore.  Physiology  for  Beginners.  New  York, 
Macmillan.  1894.  Pp.  247,  illus.  in.  75c.  (An  excellent  book  on  the 
essentials  of  physiology.  Distinguished  by  its  brief  presentation  of  the 
facts  about  alcohol.) 

Furneaux,  W.  S.  Animal  Physiology.  New  York,  Longmans. 
1888.  8oc.  Pp.  243,  illus.  218. 

Hewes,  H.  F.  Anatomy,  Physiology,  and  Hygiene  for  High  Schools. 
American  Book  Co.  1900.  Pp.  320,  illus.  88.  $1.00. 

Martin,  H.  N.  The  Human  Body,  Briefer  Course.  New  York, 
Holt.  1883.  Fifth  edition,  revised  by  G.  W.  Fitz,  1898.  Pp.  408,  illus. 
157.  $1.20.  (The  most  important  texc-book  for  high  schools.) 

Macy,  M.  L.,  and  Norris,  H.  W.  Physiology  for  High  Schools. 
American  Book  Co.  1900.  Pp.  408,  illus.  143.  $1.10.  (This  book 
differs  from  others  of  its  class  chiefly  in  emphasis  upon  the  nervous  sys- 
tem, around  which  the  whole  book  is  centred.) 

Overton,  F.  Applied  Physiology.  American  Book  Co.  1897.  Pp. 
432.  8oc.  (Mentioned  here  in  order  to  call  the  attention  of  teachers  to 
the  fact  that  it  contains  numerous  erroneous  and  misleading  state- 
ments.) 

Peabody,  J.  E.  Laboratory  Exercises  in  Anatomy  and  Physiology. 
New  York,  Holt.  1898.  Revised,  1902.  Pp.  79.  6oc.  (An  excellent 
guide  for  practical  work  with  classes.) 

Peabody,  J.  E.  Studies  in  Physiology,  Anatomy,  and  Hygiene. 
New  York,  Macmillan.  1903.  Pp.  332,  figs.  147.  $1.20.  (An  excellent 
guide  to  teaching  physiology  on  a  practical  basis.) 

"Walker,  J.  Anatomy,  Physiology,  and  Hygiene.  Boston,  Allyn 
&  Bacon.  Second  edition,  1900.  Pp.  490,  illus.  121.  (Especially  excel- 
lent on  hygienic  topics.  Treatment  of  alcohol  scientific.  See  review  in 
OUTLOOK,  Vol.  LXVI,  706-709,  November  17,  1900.) 


ZOOLOGICAL  BOOK'S  447 


For  a  Short  Course  in  a  High    School  the  Following  Books  are  Recom- 
mended : 

Colton,  B.  P.  Physiology  (Briefer  Course).  Boston,  Heath.  1899. 
Pp.  386.  900.  (The  Elementary  Course  by  same  author  and  publisher 
is  somewhat  simpler.) 

Blaisdell,  A.  F.  Life  and  Health.  Boston,  Ginn.  1902.  Pp.  345. 
9oc. 

Hall,  W.  S.     Elementary  Physiology.     American  Book  Co.     750. 


CHAPTER   XI 

THE   RELATION   OF   ZOOLOGY   IN    SECONDARY    SCHOOL 
AND    COLLEGE 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Davenport,  C.  B.  Zoology  as  a  Condition  for  Admission  to  College. 
Sixth  (1898)  Report  High  School  Department,  University  of  State  of 
New  York.  Pp.  459-476.  (H.  S.  Bulletin,  No.  2,  November,  1899.) 

Ganong,  W.  F.  Suggestions  for  an  Attempt  to  Secure  a  Standard 
College  Entrance  Option  in  Botany.  SCIENCE,  N.  s.,  Vol.  XIII.,  pp. 
611-616.  April,  1901. 

Osborn,  H.  L.  The  Differentiation  of  Zoology  for  the  High-School 
and  College  Curriculum.  SCHOOL  REVIEW,  Vol.  IX.,  1901,  p.  567. 

Report  of  Committee  on  Secondary  School  Studies  (Committee  of 
Ten),  National  Educational  Association.  United  States  Bureau  of 
Education.  1893. 

Report  of  Sub-committee  on  Zoology,  National  Educational  As- 
sociation. Proceedings  N.  E.  A.,  1899,  pp.  805-809. 

t.  Differentiation  of  Work  for  School  and  College. 

No  aspect  of  zoological  teaching  in  secondary  schools  has 
been  the  subject  of  so  much  discussion  as  has  that  of  its  rela- 
tion to  the  first  college  course  in  zoology.  To  some  extent 
this  interest  may  have  been  associated  with  the  general  atten- 
tion given  to  college-admission  credit  for  all  subjects  of  the 
secondary  curriculum ;  but  certainly  it  was  stimulated  largely 
by  the  extensive  overlapping  of  college  and  secondary  work  in 
zoology. 

The  duplication  of  work  resulting  from  the  introduction  of 
the  Huxleyan  morphological  course  of  the  colleges  into  the 
Duplication  secondary  schools  began  to  attract  the  general  at- 
SchooTand1  tention  of  zoologists  in  the  early  years  of  the  last 
College.  decade  when  high- school  graduates  first  applied 

for  advance  credit  in  college  zoology  on  the  ground  that  the 
work  done  in  the  high  school  was  closely  similar  to  that  of  the 


THE  RELATION  OF  ZOOLOGY  449 

first  course  of  the  college.  This  condition  of  affairs  suggested 
that  at  least  from  the  college  standpoint  there  was  need  of 
differentiation  between  the  zoological  work  of  the  school  and 
college.  But  with  the  exception  of  casual  references  at  meet- 
ings of  local  educational  and  scientific  societies  the  subject 
received  little  attention ;  and  no  definite  and  organized  protest 
against  the  overlapping  and  duplication  of  college  and  second- 
ary courses  in  zoology  appears  to  have  been  made  before  1898. 
Previous  to  that  time  those  colleges  which  made  provision  for 
admission  credit  in  zoology  made  no  requirement  looking 
towards  differentiation  of  college  and  secondary  courses  in 
zoology. 

In  1898  Harvard  University  published  an  "  Outline  of  Re- 
quirements intended  for  use  in  preparing  students  for  the 
Lawrence  Scientific  School."  l  This  appears  to  The  Harvard 
have  been  the  first  clear  suggestion  of  differentia-  Outline- 
tion  between  college  and  secondary-school  courses  in  zoology. 
The  course  outlined  was  "  an  attempt  to  restore  the  old-time 
instruction  in  natural  history "  in  secondary  schools,  leaving 
the  general  principles  of  the  science  for  the  first  college 
course  in  the  science.  The  influence  of  this  Harvard 
pamphlet  was  widespread,  and  it  has  led  to  very  general 
advocacy,  especially  from  the  college  standpoint,  of  natural 
history  as  the  proper  work  for  high  schools  and  for  college- 
entrance  credit. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  considerations  along  three  lines  have 
entered  into  the  supporting  arguments :  First,  natural  history 

is  a  phase  of  animal  study  which  ;s  valuable    in 

.  Arguments 

preparation  tor  college  work  in  zoology;  second,   for  Natural 

its  adoption  in  high  schools  would  quite  differen- 
tiate  the  secondary  work   from   the  common  first  course   of 
the   colleges ;  and  third,   the  line    of  work  proposed  for  the 
attainment  of  the  above  ends  is  the  most  valuable  for  general 


1  This  outline,  which  was  later  developed  into  Davenport's  Introduc- 
tion to  Zoology,  has  already  been  referred  to  in  Chapter  II.  in  connection 
with  the  discussion  of  the  value  of  natural  history. 

29 


450  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

liberal  education  in  the  secondary  school.  Let  us  now  examine 
more  closely  the  arguments  along  these  three  lines. 

With  regard  to  the  first,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  knowl- 
edge of  the  natural  history  of  common  animals  is  a  most  valu- 
Naturaiffis-  a^e  preparation  for  college  courses  in  zoology 
aSio£forreP~  which  are  largelY  composed  of  those  phases  of  the 
College.  science  (especially  morphology,  physiology,  and 

embryology)  which  have  little  direct  concern  with  natural 
history. 

With  regard  to  the  supposed  demand  for  differentiation, 
there  is  reason  for  thinking  that  the  arguments  from  the 

college  standpoint  have  been  based  upon  an  over- 
is  Differen-  *    ,  ,.  .  v 

tiation  estimation  of  the    existing    conditions.     In   con- 


sidering  the  merits  of  this  question  we  must  not 
lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  probably  not  one  high-school  pupil 
in  a  hundred  studies  zoology  in  the  school  and  later  in  college. 
It  follows,  then,  that  the  overlapping  of  courses  of  zoology  in 
schools  and  colleges,  while  theoretically  a  source  of  confusion 
for  students  entering  college,  is  practically  a  very  minor 
problem  affecting  relatively  few  individuals.  Therefore,  if 
differentiation  of  courses  is  to  be  made  it  must  have  some 
basis  other  than  preparation  for  college  courses  and  the 
avoidance  of  occasional  duplication  by  the  rare  students  who 
may  take  zoology  in  both  school  and  college.  The  oft-quoted 
story  of  the  student  who  found  the  same  course  in  zoology 
"  a  la  Huxley  "  in  high  school,  college,  and  university  is  inter- 
esting, but  such  a  case  is  so  rare  that  it  is  without  significance 
so  far  as  it  has  been  taken  to  indicate  that  the  secondary 
school  should  avoid  teaching  that  which  belongs  primarily  to 
the  college.  In  short,  it  appears  upon  critical  examination 
that  the  question  of  differentiation  offers  a  very  unimportant 
line  of  argument  in  favor  of  natural  history  as  the  exclusive 
zoological  work  of  secondary  schools. 

Finally,  with  regard  to  the  third  argument,  that  natural 
history  alone  constitutes  the  proper  work  for  the  high  school, 
we  have  been  led  in  an  earlier  chapter  (p.  271)  to  the  con- 


THE  RELATION  OF  ZOOLOGY  45 1 

elusion  that   strict  limitation   of  high-school  work  to  natural 
history  is  not  satisfactory  from  the  viewpoint  of  liberal  second- 
ary education.      It  is  evident,  then,  that  the  plan   Natural  His- 
proposed  for  complete  differentiation  between  col-    Juat^foftiie 
lege  and  school  courses  cannot  be  accepted  as  a   High  School, 
final  arrangement ;  for  however  satisfactory  strict  limitation  of 
high-school   zoology   to    natural*  history   may  seem  from   the 
college  standpoint,  such  a  course  is  only  a  part  of  the  zoology 
which  is  needed  in  secondary  education. 

Now,  although  it  appears  to  be  undesirable  from  the  view- 
point of  the  high  school  to  differentiate  the  subject-matter  of 
zoology  sharply  from  that  of  some  parts  of  college  courses  in 
the  science,  it  is  nevertheless  important  that,  just  as  far  as 
possible  without  interfering  with  the  .fulfilment  of  the  aims 
governing  high-school  zoology,  the  work  of  the  school  should 
not  come  into  serious  conflict  with  that  of  the  colleges ;  and, 
furthermore,  that  the  zoological  work  of  the  school  should 
be  recognized  for  credit  on  college-admission  requirements. 
For  these  reasons  I  wish  now  to  indicate  how  a  general  course 
in  zoology  in  the  high  school,  for  example,  a  course  along  the 
lines  advocated  in  Chapter  VIII.,  would  stand  in  relation  to 
the  first  college  course  in  which  there  is  the  most  similiarity. 

In  the  first  place,  there  could  be  no  such  confusion  for  the 
student  taking  the  college  course  in  general  zoology  as  there 
might  have  been  formerly  when  the  morphological 
courses  in  school  and  college  were  almost  identi-   General 
cal.     In  point  of  view,  in  order  of  study,  in  less   schooPaid 
attention  to  details  and  minute  structure,  in  avoid- 
ance of  all  highly  theoretical  and  problematical  questions,  in 
emphasis  upon  physiology  and  some  natural  history  —  in  these 
and  other  minor  respects  a  general  course  in  zoology  adapted 
to  the   high-school  conditions  would    be    decidedly  different 
from  the  first  course  of  the  leading  colleges.     It  is  true  that 
many  of  the  general  principles  of  zoology  would  be  touched 
upon  in  the  high-school  course  in  anticipation  of  the  college 
work ;  but  owing  to  the  differences  above  noted,  there  is  no 


452  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

reason  why  even  the  same  animal  types  might  not  with  greater 
profit  be  repeated  in  the  college  by  the  occasional  pupil  who 
elects  zoology  in  college  after  studying  it  in  the  high  school. 
The  advanced  viewpoint  of  the  college  work,  the  greater  ma- 
turity of  students  and  increased  facilities  for  critical  scientific 
study  —  these  ought  to  work  to  the  end  that  the  general  view 
of  the  science  and  its  methods  obtained  in  the  high  school 
should  fit  the  student  for  more  rigid  accuracy  in  work  of  the 
detailed  type  demanded  in  college  laboratories.  In  short,  I 
regard  it  as  no  serious  matter  if  the  high  school  does  touch 
upon  some  principles  and  even  illustrate  them  by  the  same 
animal  types  which  are  used  in  college  ;  for  it  rests  with  the 
college  instructor  to  demand  of  the  student  with  previous 
training  more  detailed  and  more  supplementary  work  than 
may  be  required  of  most  members  of  the  class  who  will  have 
had  no  high-school  work  in  the  science. 

It  will  be  objected  that  many  pupils  who  have  studied  high- 
school  zoology  will  have  the  impression  that  they  have  mas- 
Danger  in  tered  the  science.  This  is  too  true.  Fortunately 
Ztfk^Sf"  very  few  of  these  wil1  trouble  the  college  depart- 
ffigh  School.  ment  by  electing  zoology.  But  it  is  the  duty  of 
the  high-school  teacher  to  work  against  the  development  of 
such  an  attitude  on  the  part  of  pupils.  Not  only  should  great 
care  be  taken  to  avoid  giving  the  impression  that  any  topic  or 
type  has  been  studied  exhaustively  ("  finished")  ;  but  no  op- 
portunity should  be  lost  for  emphasizing  the  fact  that,  owing 
to  limitations  of  time  and  other  conditions,  only  the  more 
superficial  facts  can  be  learned  in  the  high-school  course,  leav- 
ing most  of  the  finer  points  for  the  more  advanced  work  of 
those  who  have  time  and  opportunity  to  pursue  the  subject 
farther  in  college.  Finally,  as  a  means  of  emphasizing  the 
superiority  of  the  college  work,  let  it  be  clearly  understood 
that  work  done  in  the  high  school  is  not  equivalent  and  may 
not  be  substituted  for  advance  credit  in  a  college  course,  but 
let  the  high-school  work  be  given  its  proper  credit  as  such  on 
entrance  to  college. 


THE  RELATION  OF  ZOOLOGY  453 

Working  along  the  lines  indicated  in  the  foregoing  discus- 
sion it  seems  possible  to  bring  the  high-school  and  the  college 
course  in  zoology,  each  with  its  own  peculiar  aims,  into  a 
harmonious  relation,  with  the  result  that  the  work  best 
adapted  for  the  general  high  school  will  also  give  an  ad- 
vantageous, although  not  required,  preparation  for  advanced 
college  work  in  the  same  science.  This  must  be  the  .basis  of 
any  generally  satisfactory  scheme  of  college-entrance  credits  in 
zoology. 

Finally,  we  may  profitably  look  at  the  question  of  the  rela- 
tion of  college  and  secondary  zoology  from  a  point  of  view 
entirely  different  from  that  of  regarding  the  lower  study  of 
work  as  leading  to  the  higher.  Colleges  now  offer 
so  many  elective  courses  in  science  that  many  College. 
students  have  opportunity  to  pursue  those  which  they  did  not 
study  in  the  secondary  school,  and  we  may  doubt  whether  it  is 
advisable  to  encourage  the  mass  of  students  to  continue  in 
college  the  sciences  to  which  they  gave  most  attention  in  the 
high  school.  Rather  it  seems  wise  to  advise  in  general  that 
new  sciences  be  first  undertaken  to  the  end  that  a  wider  view 
of  general  science  may  be  obtained.  Personally,  I  have  no 
sympathy  with  the  too-common  departmental  selfishness  which 
encourages  three  or  four  years  of  specializing  in  one  science 
while  the  student  remains  almost  absolutely  ignorant  of  the 
essentials  of  other  sciences.  Such  specialization  is  the  proper 
work  of  the  university.  Undergraduate  college  work  in 
science  should  primarily  consist  of  a  general  view  of  the  field 
of  each  of  the  three  great  phases  of  natural  science,  viz., 
physical  (physics  and  chemistry),  earth  science  (geography 
and  geology),  and  biology.  Scientific  discipline  is  gained  by 
each  of  these  as  taught  by  modern  methods  ;  and  with  regard 
to  information,  either  as  a  foundation  for  later  specializing  in 
any.  science  or  for  the  purpose  of  liberal  culture,  a  view  of 
natural  science  in  general  is  surely  more  valuable  than  a  special 
knowledge  of  detailed  facts  in  any  limited  field,  however 
interesting  they  may  be  to  the  student. 


454  THE   TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

2.  Zoology  for  College-Entrance  Credit. 

It  may  be  taken  for  granted  that  no  teacher  of  zoology  in 
school  or  college  seriously  advocates  placing  zoology  on  the 

list  of  subjects  required  for  entrance.  Among 
Zoology  ,  ,  ,  , 

should  not  be     many  reasons  why  it  should  not  be  so,   we  may 

note  that  it  is  not  necessary  as  a  preparation  for 
the  zoological  study  in  college,  since  elementary  courses  in  the 
science  are  now  given  in  all  leading  colleges ;  second,  that 
very  many  good  high  schools  and  academies  are  not  prepared 
to  conform  with  such  a  requirement ;  and  third,  it  is  the 
opinion  of  very  many,  perhaps  a  majority,  of  professors  of 
zoology  in  leading  colleges  that,  with  the  exception  of  studies 
in  general  natural  history,  the  elements  of  the  science  can  be 
presented  so  much  better  in  colleges  that  it  seems  best  not 
to  encourage  the  study  of  zoology  in  the  schools  by  the  pupils 
who  are  aiming  directly  at  preparation  for  college. 

Obviously,  general  acceptance  of  the  last  expressed  opinion 
would  not  militate  against  the  desirability  of  offering  zoology  in 

schools  for  the  benefit  of  the  vast  majority  who  are 
Zoology  Pri-  .  . 

mary  for         not  preparing  for  college.     As  we  have  seen,  zool- 
those  not  pre-  \        c  *       •     •  i         i        ...         .     ,, 

paring  for       ogy  has  facts  and  principles  wherein  it  is  valuable 

as  a  part  of  a  liberal  education  ;  and  for  the  sake  of 
the  great  majority  of  pupils  who  can  never  go  to  college  the 
science  deserves  to  be  taught  in  secondary  schools,  excepting, 
perhaps,  the  special  academies  which  aim  directly  at  prepara- 
tion for  college  entrance  and  may  well  advise  their  pupils  to 
leave  zoology  for  college  study. 

But  evidently  it  is  impossible  to  draw  a  distinct  line  between 
those  pupils  who  are  likely  to  go  to  college  and  those  who  are 
An  option  in  not.  Many  pupils  cannot  decide  about  college 
desirable.  before  graduation  from  the  high  school.  Hence,  it 
becomes  important  that  at  least  all  pupils  who  do  not  look 
forward  with  considerable  certainty  to  college  work  may  be  able 
to  study  zoology  with  assurance  that  in  the  event  of  change  of 
their  plan  the  work  done  in  the  schools  may  be  credited  for 


THE  RELATION  OF  ZOOLOGY  455 

college  entrance.  We  see,  then,  that  whereas  a  uniform  re- 
quirement in  zoology  is  highly  undesirable,  an  option  for  credit 
on  admission  to  college  is  a  great  desideratum.  Recognizing 
this,  the  American  Society  of  Zoologists  has  appointed  (1903)  a 
committee  of  five,  with  instructions  to  consider  the  question  of 
a  college-entrance  option  in  zoology  as  viewed  from  the  stand- 
point of  secondary  education.  The  final  reports  of  this  com- 
mittee will  probably  be  published  in  Science  and  School 
Science j  early  in  1905. 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE   TEACHING   OP   HUMAN   PHYSIOLOGY  IN   SECOND- 
ARY  SCHOOLS 

"  Such  a  course  of  physiology  as  is  needful  for  the  comprehension  of  its  general  truths 
and  their  bearings  on  daily  conduct,  is  an  all-essential  part  of  a  rational  education."  — 
HERBERT  SPENCER,  in  Ediication. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Gage,  S.  H.  Physiology  in  the  Schools.  SCIENCE,  n.  s.,  Vol.  IV., 
1896,  pp.  29-33.  Also  in  Regents'  Bulletin,  No.  36,  University  of  State 
of  New  York,  pp.  66-72. 

Hall,  W.  S.  The  Presentation  of  Physiology  to  High-School 
Classes.  SCHOOL  SCIENCE,  Vol.  I.,  1901,  pp.  58-61. 

Hall,  "W.  S.  The  Teaching  of  Physiology  in  the  Common  Schools. 
SCHOOL  SCIENCE,  Vol.  III.,  425-431.  February,  1904. 

Foster,  M.  On  the  Teaching  of  Physiology  in  Schools.  NATURE, 
Vol.  LI.,  p.  487.  1895. 

Huxley,  T.  H.  On  Elementary  Instruction  in  Physiology  (1877). 
In  Essays  on  Science  and  Education.  New  York,  A'ppleton.  Also 
in  NATURE,  Vol.  XVI.,  p.  223;  and  in  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY, 
Vol.  XL,  p.  668. 

Lee,  F.  S.  Teaching  Physiology  in  Secondary  Schools.  Paper 
before  New  York  State  Science  Teachers'  Association.  University  of 
State  of  New  York,  High  School  Bulletin,  No.  13,  pp.  807-832. 
(This  bulletin  is  obtainable  from  Secretary  of  University  of  State  of 
New  York,  Albany.  Price,  35  cents.) 

Peabody,  J.  E.  Physiology  in  the  High  School.  NEW  YORK 
TEACHERS'  MAGAZINE,  Vol.  I.,  No.  2,  1899,  pp.  163-170. 

Peabody,  J.  E.  Study  of  Bacteria  in  the  Public  Schools.  SCHOOL 
SCIENCE,  Vol.  I.  November  and  December,  1901. 

Peabody,  J.  E.  Physiology  in  the  Peter  Cooper  High  School,  New 
York  City.  JOURNAL  OF  APPLIED  MICROSCOPY,  Vol.  III.,  pp.  917-932. 
July,  1900. 

Report  of  Committee  of  Ten  on  Secondary  School  Studies,  National 
Educational  Association,  1893.  Physiology  in  Primary  and  Secondary 
Schools,  pp.  158-161.  Washington,  United  States  Bureau  of  Education. 

Sedgwick,  W.  T.  What  Training  in  Physiology  and  Hygiene  may 
we  Reasonably  Expect  of  the  Public  Schools  ?  SCIENCE,  n.  s.,  Vol. 
XVIII.  Also  in  SCHOOL  SCIENCE,  Vol.  III.  February,  1904.  SCI- 
ENCE, Vol.  XVIII.,  pp.  353-360.  September  18,  1903. 


TEACHING   OF  HUMAN  PHYSIOLOGY        457 

Bigelow,  M.  A.  The  Study  of  the  Human  Body.  W.  VA.  SCHOOL 
JOURNAL,  Vol.  XIX.  January,  February,  and  April,  1900. 

Bigelow,  M.  A.  Elementary  Study  of  the  Nervous  System.  NEW 
YORK  TEACHERS'  MONOGRAPHS,  Vol.  IV.,  No.  i,  pp.  102-105.  1902. 

A  Teacher.  Teaching  Physiology  in  the  Public  Schools.  POPULAR 
SCIENCE  MONTHLY,  Vol.  XXXIII.,  pp.  509-620.  1888. 

Elementary  Text-boo-ks  of  Human  Physiology  are  Listed  in  the  Chap- 
ter on  "  Zoological  Books." 

THE  term  '''physiology"  as  commonly  used  to  designate  a 
special  course  of  instruction  in  elementary  and  secondary 
schools  refers  to  study  of  the  human  body  from 

the  combined  standpoints  of  anatomy  (structure),   Elementary 
1-1          /r         •  \         j   u      •  Physiology, 

pure  physiology  (functions  of  organs),  and  hygiene 

(laws  and  conditions  of  health) ;  and  hence  the  term  "  physi- 
ology "  is  used  inexactly.  However,  this  has  some  justification 
from  the  fact  that  the  study  of  functions  and  activities  —  that 
is,  physiology  in  the  strict  sense  —  is  the  central  point  in  the 
elementary  work,  the  facts  of  structure  (anatomy)  being  a 
necessary  basis  for  study  of  functions,  and  hygienic  rules  a 
logical  application  of  the  physiological  principles.  For  the 
purposes  of  discussion  it  is  necessary  to  accept  the  common 
usage,  but  to  avoid  possible  confusion  the  quotation  marks 
will  serve  to  distinguish  "  human  physiology,"  the  combination 
of  elementary  studies  of  anatomy,  physiology,  and  hygiene, 
from  pure  physiology,  the  science  of  functional  activity. 

i.   The  Relation  of   "Human    Physiology"  to  Other  Biological 
Sciences  in  the  High  School. 

The  nature  of  the  common  courses  in  high-school  "  physi- 
ology "  is  so  familiar  to  those  who  have  examined  the  text- 
books by  Martin.  Blaisdell,  Colton,  and  others  (see 

The  Separate 
p.  446)  that  description  is  unnecessary  as  a  basis   Course  in 

for  our  discussions.     Suffice  it  to  say  that  the  most 
striking  features  of  this  course  as  presented  in  the  text-books 
are  :  first,  that  there  is  little  important  difference  between  this 
work  for  high-school  pupils  and  that  presented  in  other  books 
for  the  last  year  of  the  elementary  school ;  and  second,  that 


458  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

although  human  physiology  is  a  phase  of  biology  it  is  com- 
monly presented  quite  independently  of  the  biological  courses. 
On  the  basis  of  these  two  points  it  will  be  maintained  that  the 
separate  course  in  physiology  should  be  omitted  from  the 
high-school  curriculum.1 

With  regard  to  the  similarity  between  the  high-school  and 
elementary-school  physiology,  careful  comparisons  of  subject- 
matter  in  text-books  and  of  results  in  certain  schools 
Similarity  of    , 

the  Work  in  has  convinced  the  writer  that  there  is  no  £ood 
High  and  Ele-  ,.  .  , 

mentary          reason  why  the  peculiar  line  of  study  represented 

by  the  courses  with  direct  reference  to  the  human 
body  should  not  stop  with  the  end  of  the  elementary-school 
work,  for  the  high-school  course  adds  nothing  but  details, 
except  as  it  enters  upon  the  field  of  other  high-school  sciences, 
thus  producing  a  wasteful  duplication  of  work.  One  argument 
for  the  high-school  course  is  that  this  may  be  taught  by  the 
laboratory  method.  But  I  must  answer  that  this  laboratory 
work  so  far  as  it  is  individual  work,  is  almost  entirely  the  kind 
of  duplication  referred  to  above.  Moreover,  many  elementary 
schools  have  successfully  taught  in  the  eighth  grade  the  es- 
sentials of  physiology  by  means  of  demonstrations  which  require 
no  special  laboratory  —  in  fact,  the  very  same  demonstrations 
which  are  available  in  high  schools  where  the  physiology  does 
not  largely  duplicate  work  of  other  science  courses. 

These  serious  objections  to  the  separate  course  in  high  school 
leads  us  directly  to  our  main  proposition  that  the  study  of 

"human  physiology"  should  in  the  very  nature 
cioSy1?!7  °f  its  subject-matter  be  closely  connected  with  the 
Biology.  study  of  biological  sciences,  and  it  is  desirable  that 

high-school  "  physiology "  should  be  an  integral 
part  of  the  first  course  in  biology  in  which  it  will  naturally  be 
closely  associated  with  the  animal  phase.  The  importance  of 
direct  continuity  with  biology  which  furnishes  important  illus- 


1  Excepting  the  few  schools  with  five-year  courses  in  which  the  first 
year  corresponds  to  the  eighth  grade  of  the  grammar  school. 


TEACHING   OF  HUMAN  PHYSIOLOGY        459 

trative  and  comparative  materials,  especially  in  the  line  of 
practical -work ;  the  difficulty  of  adjusting  a  separate  course 
to  the  high-school  curriculum ;  and  the  difficulty  of  teaching 
a  separate  course  so  as  to  differentiate  between  the  elementary- 
school  work  on  the  one  hand  and  the  high-school  course  on 
the  other  —  these  and  other  reasons  appeal  to  teachers  who 
have  had  experience  with  the  present  arrangement,  and  lead 
to  the  conclusion  that  to  continue  the  separation  of  "  physi- 
ology" from  the  high-school  course  in  zoology  is  a  serious 
mistake. 

This  is  no  new  opinion,  but  one  which  has  been  gaining 
favor  for  several  years.  Several  prominent  teachers  have  sug- 
gested a  close  correlation  between  "  human  physiology "  and 
zoology,  and  also  between  these  studies  in  the  high  school  and 
the  nature-study  and  elementary  "  physiology  "  of  the  lower 
schools.  No  one  has  expressed  this  idea  more  suggestively 
than  Professor  W.  S.  Hall  of  Northwestern  University  : 

"  In  the  high  school  the  pupil  receives  for  the  first  time  instruc- 
tion in  nature  sufficiently  systematic  to  be  dignified  by  the  name 
of  Biology.  In  the  first  year  he  should  have  a  thor- 
ough course  in  elementary  botany.  It  should  be  a 
laboratory  course  supplemented  by  recitations.  The 
plants  studied  should  be  few  in  number  and  the  technicalities  of  a 
detailed  morphology  should  not  be  attempted.  What  the  student 
at  this  age  needs  is  a  knowledge  of  the  life  histories  of  plants  and 
animals.  How  do  they  live  ?  How  do  they  reproduce  their  kind  ? 
What  becomes  of  them  when  they  die  ?  Why  do  two  plants  of 
the  same  species  differ,  one  from  the  other?  How  do  these  living 
forms  come  to  be?  Are  they  changing?  If  so,  why?  In  the 
high-school  course  in  botany,  physiology  should  be  made  more 
prominent  than  morphology. 

"In  the  second  year  of  the  high  school  there  should  be  a 
course  in  zoology  planned,  like  the  botany,  to  emphasize  the  life 
histories,  and  to  answer  for  animals,  questions  similar  to  those 
raised  in  the  study  of  plants.  All  of  this  in  preparation  for  the 
study  of  high-school  physiology. 

"With  a  preparation  for  physiology  so  thorough  as  that  out- 
lined above,  I  should  make  this  branch  rather  the  biology  of 
man  than  simple  human  physiology.  Let  the  class  study  the  ani- 


460  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

mal  —  Homo;  his  species,  varieties,  and  races;  the  geographical 
distribution  of  the  races  and  their  characteristics.  Let  them 
review  the  morphology  of  man  in  its  general  features,  and  insti- 
tute comparisons  between  man  and  his  nearest  associates  among 
the  vertebrates.  .  .  . 

"  Questions  of  life  history,  reproduction,  whence,  how,  and 
whither  would  better  not  be  discussed.  The  courses  in  botany 
and  zoology  have  sharpened  the  senses  and  incited  the  thoughtful 
questioning  of  the  pupil.  When  he  comes  to  the  study  of  man, 
leave  him  alone  with  his  thoughts  on  these  deeper  and  more 
delicate  questions,  and  he  will  arrive  at  the  Truth."  1 

In  the  above  paragraphs  there  is  expressed  the  essentials  of 
an  idea  which  has  long  been  developing  in  the  minds  of  many 
teachers.  It  is  the  inevitable  outgrowth  of  the  introduction 
into  secondary  schools  of  the  modern  courses  in  botany  and 
zoology  taught  by  the  laboratory  method.  The  study  of  the 
structures  and  activities  of  the  human  body  apart  from  its 
relation  to  other  animals  is  a  loss  both  to  "  human  physiology  " 
and  to  zoology,  for  each  subject  may  contribute  much  of 
importance  to  the  other. 

Accepting  the  view  that  it  is  desirable  to  combine  or  cor- 
relate the  teaching  of  "  human  physiology  "  and  other  bio- 

losrical  work   in   the    secondary    school,    what    is 
How  unite 

Physiology  the  best  method  of  accomplishing  this  union  of 
and  Biology  ?  ' 

the  two  subjects  which  are  commonly  presented 

independently? 

The  arrangement  which  may  first  be  discussed  is  that  sug- 
gested in  the  above  quotation  from  Professor  Hall's  paper. 
Professor  ^  *s  t^at  a  course  m  botany  in  the  first  high- 
Hail's  Sug-  school  year  and  zoology  in  the  second  should  pre- 
pare for  a  biological  study  of  the  human  body  in  a 
later  year.  This  is  excellent  in  ideal ;  but  the  practical  objec- 
tion is  that  "  human  physiology  "  is  usually  required  and  should 
be  studied  by  all  high-school  pupils  ;  and  therefore  it  would  be 


1  School  Science,  Vol.  I.     April,  1901.     Pp.  60,  61. 


TEACHING   OF  HUMAN  PHYSIOLOGY        461 

impracticable,  and  certainly  undesirable,  to  compel  all  pupils 
to  take  courses  in  botany  and  zoology  as  a  preparation  for 
the  study  of  the  structure  and  functions  of  the  human  body. 
Elsewhere  it  has  been  pointed  out  (Chapter  V)  that  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  general  curriculum  it  is  desirable  that  the 
general  field  of  the  biological  sciences  be  presented  in  a 
single  year's  course  in  the  high  school.  Certainly  it  is  not 
advisable  to  make  a  uniform  requirement,  or  even  recom- 
mendation of  more  than  one  year  of  biology  for  the  high 
school ;  and,  even  if  wholly  or  in  part  elective,  the  biological 
sciences  cannot  without  undue  emphasis  be  extended  beyond 
two  years.  It  follows  that  if  the  work  in  "  human  physiology  " 
is  to  be  articulated  with  the  biological  sciences  the  combina- 
tion must  be  adjusted  to  either  a  one-year  or,  at  most,  a  two- 
year  scheme. 

Now  these  are  the  possible  arrangements  :  first,  one  year 
may  be  required  and  given  to  a  course  which  aims  to  present 
the  most  important  facts  of  botany  and  zoology  and  p^j^ie 
"human  physiology";  or,  second,  zoology  and  Arrangements. 
"  human  physiology  "  being  most  closely  allied  may  be  pre- 
sented in  one  required  year  and  botany  offered  either  elective 
or  required,  as  a  second  course  in  biological  science. 

It  may  be  objected  that  in  either  case  the  year  including  the 
"  physiology"  would  include  an  impossible  amount  of  work. 
In  answer  to  this  it  may  be  stated  that  the    study 
of  "physiology"  in  the  elementary  school  may  be   Amount  of 
assumed   to   have  given  the  general  view  of  the 
study  of  the  human   body.     With  this  foundation  the  proper 
work  of  the  high  school  would  be,  not  study  of  the  usual  type 
of  special  text-book  which  is  slightly  different  from  that  studied 
in  the  elementary  school,  but  rather  a  comparative  study  based 
on  the  animals  studied  in  zoology  and  on  physiological  prin- 
ciples growing  out  of  both  the  animal  and  plant   phases  of 
biological   study.     Viewing  high-school  "  physiology "   in  this 
light,  it  is  not  impracticable  to  include  the  important  principles 
of  human  anatomy,  physiology,  and  hygiene  in  a  year's  course 


462  THE   TEACHING  OF  ZOOLOGY 

in  biology ;  or,  if  one  prefers  the  second  suggestion  given 
above,  it  would  be  a  perfectly  simple  matter  to  unite  "  physi- 
ology "  with  zoology  in  a  course  of  one  year,  leaving  the 
botany  as  an  independent  course. 

In  some  high  schools  the  demand  for  concentration  of  the 
biological  sciences  into  a  single  course  has  been  met  by  divid- 
Three-Term  mg  tne  vear  mto  three  terms,  for  botany,  zoology, 
Plan'  and  "  physiology  "  respectively.  But  in  most  cases 

this  plan  of  uniting  the  required  "  human  physiology "  with 
other  biological  courses  seems  to  have  resulted  simply  in  a 
combination  of  three  courses  and  not  in  a  true  correlation  of 
subject-matter  so  as  to  make  one  unified  course  in  biology. 
Very  commonly  in  such  combined  courses  the  presentation  of 
the  zoology  and  botany  part  is  on  the  basis  of  the  laboratory 
method  and  the  study  of  "  human  physiology  "  consists  merely 
of  recitations  from  an  ordinary  text-book  —  a  method  of  con- 
ducting the  course  which  is  sure  to  break  up  the  continuity. 
In  another  place  (p.  340)  I  have  argued  for  a  unified 
course  in  biology  as  opposed  to  the  usual  combination  of 
half-years  in  botany  and  zoology  in  which  there  is  a  sudden 
transition  at  the  mid-year  period,  and  it  has  been  noted  that 
there  are  serious  objections  to  such  a  break  in  the  continuity 
of  a  year's  course.  The  addition  of  "  physiology "  without 
correlation  and  unification  of  the  whole  course  would  give 
two  such  sudden  transitions  in  subject-matter,  and  it  is  clear 
that  we  cannot  justify  the  inclusion  of  "physiology"  in  a 
course  in  either  zoology  or  biology  unless  the  material  can 
be  so  arranged  as  to  make  a  continuous  development  through- 
out the  year. 

Another  possible  plan  for  the  concentration  of  the  biological 
sciences  consists  in  making  "  human  physiology  "  the  central 
Another  *^ea  °^  a  Year's  course  in  biology  which  includes 

Plan.  studies  of  plants    and    animals  so  far  as  by  com- 

parison of  structure  and  functions  they  throw  light  upon  the 
study  of  the  human  body.     Such  a  course  would  be  primarily » 
"human  physiology"  for  which  illustrative  materials  would  be 


TEACHING   OF  HUMAN  PHYSIOLOGY         463 

drawn  both  from  zoology  and  botany.1  The  advantages  of 
such  a  high-school  biological  course  on  the  basis  of  "  human 
physiology "  yvould  be  that  it  provides  for  the  "  physiology  " 
which  the  laws  require,  and  which  is  needed  in  general  educa- 
tion, because  of  the  practical  importance  of  its  subject-matter. 
Also  it  would  present  the  subject  from  the  biological  viewpoint 
and  methods,  and  would  introduce  the  pupil  to  the  general 
field  of  biological  science  by  including  in  .the  course  of  "  phys- 
iology "  many  of  the  principles  of  general  biology  which  are 
so  important  as  to  merit  a  place  in  a  required  part  of  the 
secondary  curriculum. 

But  there  is  at  least  one  serious  objection  to  such  a  high- 
school  course  in  biology  based  upon  "  human  physiology." 
Pupils  are  wearied  by  the  continuous  study  of  the  ^Wew 
latter  subject  in  the  elementary  school ;  and  for  Approach* 
the  sake  of  an  entirely  new  approach  in  the  high  ^sira^1^' 
school  it  seems  desirable  to  present  the  principles  of  biology 
apart  from  direct  reference  to  the  human  body  to  which  they 
may  later  be  applied.  There  would  also  be  an  advantage  in 
that  erroneous  impressions  gained  from  the  elementary  work 
are  more  likely  to  be  corrected  when  the  facts  of  human 
structure  and  function  are  approached  from  the  animal  stand- 
point instead  of  from  the  familiar  human  aspect  of  elementary- 
school  "  physiology."  The  study  of  animals  and  plants  would 
give  the  proper  perspective  for  the  biological  study  of  man, 
making  this  vastly  more  interesting  and  intelligible.  With  the 
preliminary  work  in  the  elementary  school,  it  will  not  be  neces- 
sary to  spend  much  time  in  the  high  school  upon  the  special 
conditions  of  human  structure  and  function.  These  are  largely 
matters  of  detail  of  little  general  importance.  In  the  high 
school  the  broader  comparative  view  should  prevail.  Emphasis 
should  be  placed  upon  the  resemblance  in  structure  and  function 
between  man  and  other  animals ;  then  in  the  next  step  the 


1  The   recent  Studies   in  Physiology,  by  Pcabody  (New  York,  Mac- 
mill  an,  1903)  is  essentially  such  a  course. 


464  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

resemblance  to  all  living  things ;  next  the  similarities  to  all 
vertebrates ;  and  finally  the  chief  resemblances  and  differences 
of  man  as  compared  with  other  mammals.  The  greater  part  of 
this  work  will  naturally  be  directly  connected  with  the  work  in 
zoology,  but  this  in  turn  should  be  closely  correlated  with  the 
work  in  botany  so  as  to  place  emphasis  upon  the  great  biological 
features,  especially  the  physiological,  in  which  plants  and  animals 
are  essentially  similar.  Incidental  references  to  human  structure 
and  functions  may  come  up  in  connection  with  any  lessons, 
but  the  formal  comparative  study  will  best  be  taken  up  by  way 
of  summary  at  the  end  of  the  course  in  zoology,  which  will  then 
have  prepared  for  an  intelligent  appreciation  of  the  biological 
study  of  man. 

The  outline  of  a  course  in  zoology  which  is  given  in  Chapter 
VIII.  involves  the  essentials  of  general  morphology  and  physi- 
ology of  animals  which  are  directly  applicable  to  the  human 
body ;  and  it  may  be  referred  to  for  further  explanation  of  the 
suggestions  in  the  above  paragraphs. 

Finally,  it  should  be  noted  that  in  some  States  it  is  scarcely 

possible  at  the  present  time  to  involve  "  human  physiology  "  in 

close  correlation  with  a  course  in  zoology,  as  has 

to  Proper  been  suggested  above,  for  the  reason  that  laws 
Correlation. 

require  that  "  physiology  "  be  taught  as  a  separate 

study  from  a  text-book  for  a  specified  number  of  lessons.  Fur- 
thermore, the  book  must  include  peculiar  subject-matter,  espe- 
cially "  temperance  instruction,"  most  of  which  could  not  be 
correlated  with  a  good  biological  course.  Under  such  condi- 
tions the  absurd  laws  must  be  obeyed  and  a  period  of  weeks 
set  aside  from  which  to  teach  "  from  text-books  in  the  hands 
of  the  pupils."  If  this  must  be  so,  let  the  subject  of 
"  physiology "  continue  to  stand  alone  in  the  secondary 
curriculum  until  possible  changes  or  repeal  of  existing  laws 
leave  science  teachers  free  to  correlate,  as  they  may  think 
best,  "physiology"  with  the  other  courses  of  biology  in  the 
high  school. 

Summarizing  the  above  considerations  of  the  relation  of  high- 


TEACHING   OF  HUMAN  PHYSIOLOGY         465 

school  "  physiology  "  to  other  biological  courses,  it  has  been 
pointed  out :  (i)  That  much  is  to  be  gained  by  close 
correlation  with  botany  and  zoology,  especially  the 
latter.  (2)  Simply  assigning  '•  physiology  "  to  a  term  of  ten  weeks 
in  a  year  devoted  to  biology  is  not  sufficient ;  there  must  be 
complete  correlation.  (3)  One  plan  for  this  consists  in  making 
"  human  physiology  "  the  centre  of  a  year's  course  into  which 
animal  and  plants  are  brought  as  illustrating  the  structure  and 
functions  of  man.  The  objection  to  this  is  that  the  line  of 
approach  is  too  much  like  that  in  the  elementary  school.  (4) 
The  plan  which  obviates  this  objection  consists  in  making  all 
references  to  "  human  physiology "  grow  out  of  studies  of 
zoology. 

2.  Teaching  the  Essentials  of  "  Human  Physiology." 

No  matter  whether  "  human  physiology  "  is  to  be  presented 
in  the  high  school  as  a  separate  course  or  as  an  integral  part  of 
a  course  in  zoology  or  biology,  the  emphasis  of  the   The  Essen- 
instruction  should  be  placed  upon  the  essentials  of  tials  needed- 
the  subject,  and  needless  details  neglected  altogether. 

The  general  criticism  on  the  text-books   of  "  physiology  " 
which  are  commonly  in  use  in  our  public  schools  is  that  almost 

without  exception  they  give  prominence  to  many 

,  •  II     j       -i        i  •   i  c  i     General  Criti- 

topics  and  especially  details  which  are  of  exceed-  cismofText- 

ingly  doubtful  value  in  either  elementary  or  sec- 
ondary education.  Moreover,  the  great  foundation  ideas  of  the 
science  are  usually  so  intermingled  in  the  text  with  minor  points 
that  beginners  must  fail  to  distinguish  between  essentials  and 
comparatively  insignificant  facts.  There  is  need  of  selection  of 
the  important  subject-matter  whose  place  in  public-school 
education  can  be  justified  on  the  ground  of  its  applicability  to 
every-day  life.  With  this  aim  in  mind,  we  shall  discuss  the 
teaching  of  some  aspects  of  "physiology"  which  are  commonly 
over-emphasized  in  the  public  schools,  and  later  consider 
some  whose  general  importance  demands  for  them  more  at- 

30 


466  THE   TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

tention   than  is  commonly  given  in  the  elementary  courses  of 
"physiology." 

After  "  temperance  instruction,"  which  we  shall  discuss  later, 
the  topic  which  first  appeals  to  us  as  being  treated  in  elemen- 
tary books   more   extensively  than   its  practical  or 
Excessive  •        i       •      ,  r 

Attention  to      disciplinary  importance  justifies  is  that  of  anatomy. 

Bones  and  muscles,  minor  blood-vessels  and  nerves, 
and  the  details  of  minute  structure  have  for  years  received 
emphasis  in  most  of  our  text-books.  As  taught  by  the  book 
method  this  anatomical  study  is  simply  memorizing  of  useless 
names  and  descriptions.  In  most  cases  only  the  general  facts 
of  structure  are  needed  for  the  study  of  functions,  and  detailed 
facts  of  anatomy  which  have  no  relation  to  general  functions  are 
useless  in  public  schools.  To  illustrate  :  The  important  physi- 
ological point  concerning  the  heart  is  that  it  is  a  pump,  and  the 
essential  facts  of  its  structure  can  be  demonstrated  in  five  or 
ten  minutes  with  a  heart  obtained  from  the  market.  Such 
details  as  those  regarding  bicuspid  and  tricuspid  valves  with 
their  papillary  muscles  and  chordae  tendineae  are  no  more 
essential  for  high-school  physiology  than  are  these  names  them- 
selves. The  only  essential  thing  is  that  pupils  see  that  there 
are  valves  so  arranged  that  blood  must  pass  in  one  direction 
only. 

Applying  to  the  study  of  structure  in  general  this  idea  of 
what  is  essential  in  the  anatomical  line  would  greatly  reduce 
Zoology  as  a  the  amount  of  material  to  be  taught  in  "  physiology  " 
s?uiyfof  as  a  separate  course  ;  and  if  presented  with  a  course 
structure.  «n  zo5iOgV  as  tjie  basis,  the  study  of  several  types  of 
animals  along  the  lines  discussed  in  Chapter  II.  would  make  it 
unnecessary  to  give  much  special  attention  to  anatomy  in  direct 
connection  with  "  human  physiology." 

The  incidental  remarks  which  have  been  made  above  with 
reference  to  the  technical  terminology  in  certain  cases  should 
Technical  a'so  ^e  aPPnec^  to  that  °f  a^  the  other  systems  of 
Terminology.  tne  ])Ody.  Qur  common  elementary  text-books  in- 
clude a  large  number  of  scientific  terms  which  have  no  legiti- 


TEACHING   OF  HUMAN  PHYSIOLOGY         467 

mate  place  in  public-school  education,  and  especially  is  the 
emphasis  placed  upon  mere  names,  probably  an  inheritance  from 
the  old-time  natural  history,  still  too  prominent  in  the  teaching 
of  elementary  "  physiology."  Some  technical  names  are  in  such 
common  use  in  every-day  life  that  they  have  lost  their  strange- 
ness, and  it  is  certainly  profitable  for  the  pupil  to  learn  them : 
in  association  with  the  thing  designated.  I  have  in  mind  here 
names  such  as  :  mesentery,  pancreas,  aesophagus,  trachea,  phar- 
ynx, and  larynx.  These  are  needed  ;  but  quite  different  is  the 
case  with  uncommon  special  terms  like  valvulae  conniventes, 
chordae  tendineae,  alveoli,  duodenum,  and  many  other  similar 
terms  found  in  elementary  text-books.  Especially  is  the  tech- 
nical nomenclature  carried  to  an  extreme  as  applied  to  nerves 
and  blood-vessels.  In  the  case  of  the  cranial  nerves  four  should 
be  associated  with  their  names  —  namely,  olfactory,  optic,  facial, 
and  auditory ;  but  I  see  no  good  reason  for  a  special  attempt 
at  memorizing  the  names  and  numbers  and  distribution  of  the 
others.  A  diagram  and  a  dissection  of  a  frog  will  teach  the  general 
facts  concerning  the  distribution  of  nerves  without  recourse  to 
special  terminology  and  complicated  descriptions  in  words.  The 
same  is  true  of  the  blood  system  ;  the  primary  vessels  connected 
with  the  heart  and  the  main  branches  —  such  as,  carotid,  hepatic, 
renal,  iliac  —  may  be  considered  well  worth  knowing  by  name  ; 
but  there  is  no  justification  for  naming  in  public  schools  such 
minor  branches  as  popliteal,  azygos,  peroneal,  and  tibial. 

In  this  connection  may  be  mentioned  the  common  use  of 
chemical  terms  which  are  meaningless  to  elementary  pupils. 

It  is  absurd  to  suppose  that  pupils  in  the  public 

.  .   ,  Useless  Chemi- 

schools  may  understand  better  the  action  of  pan- cai  Names  in 

creatic  juice  after  being  enlightened  by  the  state- 
ment that  "  the  fluid  contains  the  ferments  trypsin,  amylopsin, 


1  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  less  than  fifty  years  ago  authors  of  cer- 
tain elementary  text-books  felt  constrained  to  defend  in  their  prefaces 
the  use  of  lungs  for  "lights,"  abdomen  for  "stomach,"  intestine  for 
"bowel."  These  terms  do  not  now  appeal  to  us  as  technical  scientific 
terms. 


468  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

and  steapsin."  Likewise  there  can  be  no  definite  meaning  in 
elementary  work  for  these  statements :  "  Bile  contains  gly- 
cocholic  and  taurocholic  acids  "  ;  "  The  chief  fats  are  mar- 
garin,  olein,  palmatin,  and  stearin  "  ;  "  Coffee  contains  caffein 
and  tea  iheobromin,"  and  "  Muscle  contains  myosin  and  syn- 
tonin."  Elementary  chemistry  has  some  important  applica- 
tions in  connection  with  the  study  of  "  physiology,"  but  the 
above  examples  from  elementary  books  represent  special  chem- 
istry which  is  utterly  useless  in  public-school  education  and 
should  be  omitted  altogether. 

Turning   now  to  discuss  certain  topics  which  are  not  ade- 
quately treated  in  most  of  the  usual  elementary  courses  in  this 

subject,  the  most  important  of  these  is  that  of  the 
Inadequate        _      ,  .  _  .  .  .  TT 

Treatment  of    fundamental  processes  of  general  nutrition.     Usu- 

Processesof  ally  the  processes  of  digestion,  circulation,  respira- 
tion, assimilation,  dissimilation,  and  excretion  are 
defined  and  discussed  in  separate  chapters,  and  elementary 
pupils  are  led  to  think  of  so  many  isolated  processes  which 
have  little  or  no  relation  or  interdependence.  The  great  prin- 
ciple of  co-ordination  between  these  processes  is  more  often 
than  otherwise  not  clearly  set  forth  and  emphasized,  and  the 
reason  for  the  existence  of  each  process  is  not  as  a  rule  clearly 
presented  to  elementary  pupils.  For  example,  a  chapter  in  the 
text-book  deals  with  food  in  nutrition  without  reference  to  the 
necessity  for  food  as  shown  by  a  logical  application  of  the  law 
of  conservation  of  energy.  If  pupils  are  asked  to  give  an 
answer  to  the  question,  "Why  does  the  body  need  food?" 
a  very  common  reply  is,  "  To  keep  the  body  alive."  But 
such  an  indefinite  statement  is  no  more  scientific  than  the  com- 
mon knowledge  which  any  one  with  common  sense  possesses. 
If  more  definite  ideas  are  to  be  given,  the  principle  of  conser- 
vation of  energy  must  be  explained  and  its  logical  application 
to  the  human  body  made  clear  to  the  pupils  at  the  very  begin- 
ning of  the  discussion  of  nutritive  functions.  Unless  the  essen- 
tials are  thus  made  clear  at  the  outset,  the  pupils  are  likely  to 
become  bewildered  by  the  mass  of  details  concerning  the 


TEACHING   OF  HUMAN  PHYSIOLOGY         469 

structure    of  the    organs,  minor   processes,  varieties  of  foods, 

effects  of  alcohol  and  hygiene  of  digestion — all  of 

Essentials 
which  m  many  text-books  are  given  just  as  promi-   should  be 

.  .  .        c      ,  .    distinguished 

nent  a  setting  as  that  given  to   the   fundamental  from  Minor 

nature   and   purpose    of  food.       Likewise    in  the 
study   of  blood  and  its  circulation  pupils  learn   much   about 
haemoglobin,    corpuscles,    fibrinogen,    etc.,    but    often    fail    to 
grasp  the  fundamental  idea  that  the  blood  is  essen-  Essential 
tially  a  transporting  medium  between  the  tissues  and   ftudVof 
the   outside   world,    and    made   necessary   by   the   Blood* 
demands  of  the  tissues  for  supply   of  food  and  oxygen,  for 
removal  of  waste  matters,  and  for  distribution  of  heat.     Ask 
average  pupils  the  question,  "Why  does  the  body  need  blood 
and  its  circulation?"  and  again  comes  the  all-explanatory  an- 
swer to   all   general    physiological   questions,    "  To   keep    the 
body  alive."     Of  course,  this  is  quite  true,  but  we  have  no 
justification   for  science  study  which   stops  with  such  facts  of 
common  observation. 

And  such  is  the  story  of  the  usual  presentation  of  the  whole 
series  of  functions  involved  in  general  nutrition.  Essentials 
and  facts  of  secondary  importance  are  massed  indiscriminately, 
and  to  the  average  pupil  all  are  of  equal  importance.  This  is 
certainly  a  very  undesirable  result.  To  guard  against  it,  the 
most  important  aim  should  be  that  the  pupils  come 
to  understand  the  essential  nature,  the  interdepend-  teaching 


ence  and  the  part  which  each  process  of  internal  of: 
organs  plays  as  a  step  in  general  nutrition.  It  is  Organs> 
essential  that  the  body  be  considered  a  working  whole  com- 
posed of  interdependent  and  co  ordinated  organs,  and  around 
this  central  idea  should  be  arranged  all  other  minor  facts  of 
function  and  of  structure  considered  as  the  working  machine. 
These  are  the  essentials  which  should  first  of  all  be  clearly  pre- 
sented in  a  general  way,  and  secondarily  there  may  be  added 
as  much  of  the  minor  details  of  the  general  processes  as  the 
time  and  age  of  pupils  will  allow.  Space  here  will  not  allow 
more  than  these  general  remarks,  but  it  may  be  suggested  that 


470  THE   TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

this  idea  is  well  developed  in  the  eighth  and  ninth  chapters  of 
Martin's  Human  Body,  Briefer  Course.     In  these 
"Human         chapters  the  fundamental  processes  are  clearly  de- 
fined and   emphasized  apart  from  the  secondary 
facts  which  follow  in  later  chapters.     The  plan  is  an  excellent 
one,  which  no  other  author  seems  to  have  developed  so  well. 
It  can  be  applied  by  teachers  who  use  other  text-books  with 
their  classes. 

The  subject-matter  dealing  with  hygiene  is  usually  well  pre- 
sented by  the  text-books,  except,  as  has  been  incidentally 
suggested  in  the  preceding  paragraphs,  that  the 
ordinary  arrangement  often  tends  to  a  confusion  of 
essential  physiological  principles.  This  is  avoided  if,  as  recom- 
mended above,  a  general  survey  of  physiological  essentials  apart 
from  hygiene  be  made  first,  for  then  the  later  detailed  study 
of  the  various  functions  will  lead  to  a  logical  presentation  of 
hygiene  facts  and  principles.  With  sound  understanding  of 
physiological  fundamentals  much  of  the  hygiene  will  be  better 
understood  and  appreciated ;  in  fact,  many  of  its  rules  become 
applied  common  sense. 

As  to  the  method  of  teaching  hygiene,  one  general  suggestion 
deserves  emphasis,  namely,  that  an  attempt  should  be  made 
Practical  to  develop  tne  practical  method,  for  memorizing 
teaching11  ^rom  tne  ^°°^  witnout  immediate  practice  is  of 
Hygiene.  doubtful  value,  as  in  all  other  science  work.  The 
teacher  can  accomplish  much  in  the  line  of  practical  teaching 
by  leading  the  pupils  to  begin  at  once  in  their  home  life  the 
practice  of  some  of  the  hygienic  principles  which  they  learn. 
Moreover,  in  many  cases,  particularly  in  connection  with  the 
notes  on  emergencies,  it  is  possible  to  give  demonstrations 
which  teach  more  and  better  than  would  volumes  of  printed 
matter.  For  examples,  artificial  respiration,  aseptic  treatment 
of  wounds,  simple  bandaging,  and  applying  tourniquet  to 
arteries  are  some  of  the  important  topics  which  should  be 
taught  carefully  by  direct  illustration. 

The  very  important  topic  of  the  relation  of  bacteria  to  hea'icr. 


TEACHING   OF  HUMAN  PHYSIOLOGY         471 

and  disease  has  in  the  past  received  little  attention  in  connec- 
tion with  elementary  hygiene,  but  the  best  recent  stud  of 
text-books  give  short  accounts  of  the  subject.  It  Bacteria. 
is  of  the  greatest  importance  that  there  be  widely  diffused 
knowledge  of  the  general  principles  of  bacteriology.  Even  a 
superficial  knowledge  will  convince  the  public  that  sanitary 
principles  and  laws  are  well  founded,  and  the  simple  practical 
prophylactic  measures  against  such  diseases  as  typhoid,  malaria, 
cholera,  tuberculosis,  etc.,  are  more  often  applied  when  the 
relation  of  the  causative  germs  to  air  and  water  are  understood. 
The  nature  of  infectious  diseases,  isolation  in  contagious 
diseases,  the  principles  and  methods  of  disinfection,  the  prin- 
ciples of  inoculation  and  vaccination,  the  importance  of  general 
sanitary  cleanliness  in  cities  as  well  as  in  homes,  pure  food, 
water,  and  air  —  these  are  examples  of  topics  in  which  every 
citizen  should  have  an  interest,  and  no  part  of  the  course  in 
elementary  hygiene  is  of  so  great  importance  from  the  practical 
standpoint.  These  should  be  well  taught.  The  teacher  will 
find  useful  reading  for  pupils  in  The  Story  of  the  Bacteria 
and  Dust  and  its  Dangers,  by  Prudden  ;  in  the  Story  of  Germ 
Life,  by  Conn;  and  in  Mrs.  Frankland's  Bacteria  in  Daily 
Life.  Other  books  of  interest  to  the  teacher  are  named  under 
"Bacteriology"  in  Chapter  X.  The  importance  and  ease  of 
teaching  by  practical  work  in  this  line  should  be  emphasized. 
Many  recent  text-books  (see  p.  446)  have  some  suggestions, 
but  worthy  of  special  mention  is  Peabody's  recent  Studies  in 
Physiology  (Macmillan,  igc^).1 

In  conclusion,  I  have  attempted    to   present  some  general 
suggestions  for  improving  our  teaching  of  high-school  "physi- 
ology "  by  limiting  its  subject-matter  to  those  facts 
and  ideas  which  have  a  possible  value  as  applied 
knowledge.     To  select  for  emphasis  the  essentials  of  "  physiol- 


1  See  also  a  paper  by  same  author  in  Journal  of  Applied  Microscopv, 
Vol.  IV.,  No.  2,  p.  1164;  also  his  Laboratory  Exercises  (Holt,  New 
York)  ;  and  papers  by  Frost  and  Hastings  in  Journal  of  Applied 


47 2  THE   TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

ogy  "  is  a  problem  to  which  experts  in  science  teaching  will 
surely  give  more  attention  before  many  years  pass.  We  need 
concise  text-books  which  concentrate  in  their  one  hundred 
pages  all  and  more  than  is  now  given  in  three  and  four  hun- 
dred pages.  But  at  present  in  the  absence  of  such  guides  to 
the  essentials,  teachers  will,  I  think,  find  that  their  own  expe- 
rience teaches  the  relative  values  of  many  minor  parts  of  the 
subject-matter  of  which  it  has  been  possible  here  to  suggest 
only  the  most  general  outlines. 

3.    "Scientific  Temperance"  or  "Temperance  Instruction." 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Atwater,  W.  O.  Alcohol  Physiology  and  Superintendence.  EDU- 
CATIONAL REVIEW,  Vol.  XX.,  pp.  1-29.  June,  1900.  Also  in  Proc.  N. 
E.  A.,  1900,  pp.  229-266. 

Atwater,  W.  O.  Alcohol  Physiology  and  Temperance  Reform. 
HARPER'S  MAGAZINE,  Vol  CL,  pp.  850-858.  November,  1900. 

Atwater,  W.  O.  Nutritive  Value  of  Alcohol.  Ibid.,  pp.  675-684. 
October,  1900. 

Atwater,  W.  O.  Alcohol  Physiology  in  Public  Schools.  Printed 
with  report  of  committee  of  New  York  State  Science  Teachers'  Asso- 
ciation, which  see  below. 

Button,  S.  T.  Scientific  Temperance  Legislation.  SCHOOL  JOUR- 
NAL, Vol.  LX.,  pp.  268,  269.  1900. 

Eliot,  C.  W.  Educational  Reform.  Pp.  190-191.  New  York.  Cen- 
tury Co.  1898. 

Ferguson,  W.  B.  Temperance  Teaching  and  Recent  Legislation  in 
Connecticut.  EDUCATIONAL  RKVIEW,  Vol.  XXIII. ,  pp.  233-249. 
March,  1902. 

Hunt,  Mary  H.  A  History  of  the  First  Decade  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Scientific  Instruction  in  Schools  and  Colleges  of  the  Woman's 
Christian  Temperance  Union.  Boston,  second  edition,  1891. 

Hunt,  Mary  H.  An  Epoch  of  the  Nineteenth  Century.  An  Outline 
for  the  Work  for  Scientific  Temperance  Education  in  the  Public  Schools 
of  the  United  States.  Boston,  1897. 

Jordan,  D.  S.  Scientific  Temperance.  POPULAR  SCIENCE  MONTHLY, 
Vol.  XLVIIL,  pp.  343-354.  January,  1895. 


Microscopy,  Vol.  VI.,  series  of  papers  beginning  in  March,  1903.  These 
latter  have  many  good  suggestions,  but  are  not,  on  the  whole,  as  practicable 
for  the  average  high  school  as  are  the  books  and  papers  by  Peabody. 


TEACHING   OF  HUMAN  PHYSIOLOGY         473 

Sabin,  H.  Education.  May,  1900.  (Answer  to  Atwater's  paper  on 
Alcohol  and  Superintendence.) 

Sedgwick,  W.  T.  The  Modern  Subjection  of  Science  and  Edu- 
cation to  Propaganda.  SCIENCE,  n.  s.,  Vol.  XV.,  pp.  44-54.  January 
10,  1902.  Presidential  Address  before  American  Society  of  Naturalists. 

Articles  on  "temperance  text-books"  and  Atwater's  experiments 
in  OUTLOOK.  Vol.  LXIL,  703-706,  700-702,  July  29,  1899.  v°l-  LXIL, 
882,883,  908-911,  August  19,  1899.  Vol.  LXIIL,  483-485,  493-497, 
October  28,  1899.  Vol.  LXIV.,  390,  February  17,  1900.  Vol.  LXVI.,' 
706-709,  November  17,  1900.  Vol.  LXVI.,  974,  996-999,  December 
22,  1900. 

Report  of  Committee  on  Alcohol  and  Narcotics,  New  York  State 
Science  Teachers'  Association.  Sixth  conference,  1901.  University  of 
the  State  of  New  York,  High  School  Bulletin,  No.  17,  pp.  745-762. 

Discussion  of  report  and  papsr  by  Atwater  (see  above),  pp.  763-815. 
(Bulletin  No.  17  may  be  obtained  from  Secretary  of  University  of  State 
of  New  York,  Albany.  Price,  40  cents.) 

Reply  to  above  report.  A  circular  by  New  York  State  Central  Com- 
mittee on  Scientific  Temperance  Instruction  in  Public  Schools.  Ob- 
tainable from  A.  L.  Manierre,  Secretary  of  Committee,  31  Nassau  St., 
New  York  City. 

School  Instruction  in  the  Effects  of  Alcohol  and  Narcotics.  From 
the  report  of  a  committee  of  the  New  York  State  Science  Teachers' 
Association  (see  above).  EDUCATIONAL  REVIEW,  Vol.  XXIV.,  pp. 
31-47.  June,  1902. 

Protest  against  bill  to  increase  instruction  in  physiology,  with  special 
reference  to  alcohol  and  narcotics.  Signed  by  many  leaders  of  science 
and  education  in  the  State  of  New  York.  Department  of  Public  In- 
struction, State  of  New  York,  Albany,  1895. 

Report  to  the  Committee  of  Fifty.  Physiological  Aspects  of  the 
Liquor  Problem.  Based  on  investigations  by  and  under  direction  of 
Atwater,  Billings,  Bowditch,  Chittenden,  and  Welch.  2  volumes,  pp. 
396,  379.  Boston,  Houghton,  Mifflin.  1903.  $4.50. 

Reply  to  above  report.  Senate  Document,  No.  171,  58th  Congress, 
Second  Session.  Also  obtainable  from  A.  L.  Manierre,  31  Nassau  St., 
New  York. 

The  most  characteristic  feature  of  the  present  teaching  of 
"  physiology  "  in  public  schools  of  the  United  States  is  the  so- 
called    "temperance    instruction,"    or    "scientific 
temperance "    which   deals    with    the   nature    and  <f  Temperance 
effects  of  alcohol  and   narcotics.      So  prominent 
is  this  in  the  subject-matter  of  most  elementary  text-books  that 
in  almost  every  case  the  topic  is  mentioned  on  the  title-page  ; 
and  even  that  most  excellent  among  elementary  books,  Martin's 


4/4  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

Human  Body,  Briefer  Course,  bore  on  the  cover  of  the  last 
edition  prepared  by  the  author  the  strange  title,  The  Human 
Body  and  the  Effects  of  Narcotics.  Viewed  from  the  stand- 
point of  advanced  study  of  pure  physiology,  such  prominence 
for  alcohol  and  narcotics  is  surprising ;  for,  except  in  special 
investigations,  little  attention  is  paid  to  them  in  college  and 
university  courses.  But  in  fact,  as  will  be  shown  later,  the 
"  temperance  instruction  "  included  in  elementary  books  is  only 
in  part  physiological.  For  this  reason  and  also  because  the 
introduction  of  this  material  has  had  a  very  peculiar  influ- 
ence upon  the  teaching  of  "  physiology  "  in  public  schools,  it 
has  seemed  best  to  discuss  the  subject  apart  from  the  preced- 
ing section  on  the  essentials  of  a  course  in  "  physiology.'1 

It  is  not  my  purpose  to  review  here  the  history  of  the  de- 
velopment of  this  phase  of  instruction  in  connection  with 
"physiology."  Suffice  it  to  say  that  its  general 
lation.  introduction  into  our  public  schools  has  been  in 

conformity  with  laws  which  have  been  enacted  in  many  States ; 
and  these  enactments  were  the  direct  result  of  a  well-organized 
movement  on  the  part  of  certain  "  temperance  "  societies  which 
have  aimed  to  make  "  physiology  "  a  basis  for  instruction  with 
special  reference  to  the  effects  of  alcohol  and  narcotics.1 

It  is  now  generally  agreed  by  at  least  a  large  majority  of  the 
most,  prominent  educators  and  scientific  men  that  the  "  tern- 
Harmful  in-  perance  instruction  "  movement  has  had  a  very 
xSfng1??  narmful  influence  upon  the  teaching  of  "physi- 
Physioiogy.  ology  "  in  public  schools  in  the  United  States.  I 
am  aware  that  this  statement  might  be  challenged  on  the  basis 

1  The  history  of  the  movement  to  secure  legislation  has  been  written 
by  Mary  H.  Hunt,  a  leader  of  the  movement  (see  two  books  cited  in  the 
bibliography  of  this  section). 

The  address  by  Professor  W.  T.  Sedgwick  of  the  Massachusetts 
Institute  of  Technology  concisely  reviews  the  important  points  in  the 
history  of  the  movement.  His  critical  remarks  met  with  the  general 
approval  of  the  national  scientific  society  before  which  they  were  made, 
and  hence  may  be  taken  as  expressing  the  consensus  of  opinion  of  very 
many  of  the  leading  scientific  men  of  the  United  States.  Every  teacher 
of"  physiology  "  should  read  the  address. 


TEACHING  OF  HUMAN  PHYSIOLOGY         475 

of  the  claim  of  "  temperance  "  leaders  that  to  the  movement 
for  special  instruction  concerning  alcohol  and  narcotics  is  due 
the  introduction  of  "  physiology  "  into  the  schools.  It  is  true 
that  laws  have  made  the  study  required  in  schools,  but  we 
must  not  overlook  the  fact  that  long  before  the  beginning  of 
the  "  scientific  temperance  "  crusade  there  was  a  strong  move- 
ment in  favor  of  "  physiology  "  in  general  education.  In  sup- 
port of  this  it  is  only  necessary  to  call  attention  to  the  papers 
by  Huxley,  Horace  Mann,  and  others.  Moreover,  the  earlier 
school  reports  prove  that  "  physiology  "  was  not  uncommon  in 
many  States  long  before  it  was  required  by  laws  physiology 
framed  in  the  interests  of  "  temperance  instruc-  J^raScJiii- 
tion."  We  admit  that  the  movement  for  "  scien-  strw*ion. 
tific  temperance "  may  in  some  cases  have  hastened  the 
introduction  of  physiology,  but  in  the  very  importance  of  its 
subject-matter  we  see  good  reason  for  believing  that  the  sub- 
ject would  be  taught  to-day  in  all  schools  fitted  to  teach  it,  even 
if  there  had  been  no  laws  requiring  the  teaching. 

In  general  the  injurious  influence  which  "  temperance  in- 
struction "  has  had  upon  the  teaching  of  "  physiology "  has 

come  from  the  laws  l  which,   framed  to  meet  the 

Nature  and 
demands  of  the  "temperance"  leaders,  have  speci-   Effect  of 

.    Laws. 
ned  in  detail  concerning  the  nature,  amount,  and 

arrangement   of    instruction    on   the   subject   of    alcohol   and 
narcotics.     It  is   true  that  only  in   certain  States    have  such 


1  Some  form  of  "temperance  instruction"  laws  now  (1902)  exist  in 
nearly  every  State  and  Territory.  In  over  thirty  States  and  Territories 
the  study  of  "scientific  temperance"  is  required  in  all  public  schools,  and 
all  pupils  who  pass  through  the  schools  must  pursue  the  study.  In 
about  twenty  of  these  not  only  is  such  teaching  required  but  penalties 
are  provided  for  non-compliance  with  the  laws.  At  least  fifteen  of  these 
require  the  study  from  "text-books  in  the  hands  of  all  pupils  able  to 
read."  About  ten  States  require  that  text-books  for  elementary  schools 
must  have  one-fourth  or  one-fifth  of  their  space  devoted  to  "  temperance," 
and  in  the  case  of  high-school  books  not  less  than  twenty  pages.  And 
in  at  least  thirty-two  States  teachers  must  pass  examinations  on  the  sub- 
ject of  "scientific  temperance."  The  laws  of  New  York  and  Illinois  are 
the  most  extreme.  In  New  York  all  pupils  below  the  second  year  of 


476  THE   TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

limitations  been  placed  upon  the  teaching  of  u  physiology  " ; 
but  even  where  the  laws  have  not  thus  specified  the  influence 
has  been  essentially  the  same,  for  the  text-books  of  the  most 
prominent  publishers  have  been  made  to  conform  with  the  most 
extreme  laws. 

We  may  now  inquire  more  specifically  concerning  the  nature 
of  "  temperance  instruction,"  considering  first  the  methods  of 
teaching  the  subject,  and  second  the  subject-matter  itself. 

The  "  approved "  method  of  giving  "  temperance  instruc- 
tion "  is  that  of  reading  and  recitation  from  text-books.  Upon 
The"Ap-  this  point  the  leaders  of  the  movement  have  been 
MeSodof  insistent,  and  through  their  agitation  it  has  been 
ISucttoif.  required  by  law  in  many  States  that  the  effects  of 
alcohol  and  narcotics  must  be  studied  from  "graded  text-books 
in  the  hands  of  all  pupils  able  to  read."  It  has,  therefore, 
come  about  that  the  "  scientific  temperance  "  laws  of  some 
States  and  the  resulting  text-books  have  worked  together  in 
producing  and  maintaining  the  widespread  use  of  the  recitation 
method  in  the  teaching  of  "  physiology,"  which  is  decidedly  out 
of  line  with  all  modern  science  teaching.  To  these 
Scientific  criticisms  it  may  be  answered  that  teachers  are 
free,  even  in  New  York  and  Illinois,  to  introduce 
as  much  practical  work  as  they  wish,  and  that  the  '*  approved  " 
text-books  have  appendices  directing  such  practical  study ;  but 
the  fact  is  that  the  nature  and  arrangement  of  required  book 
work  is  such  as  to  interfere  seriously  with  a  logical  develop- 


high  school  and  above  the  third  grade  shall  be  taught  this  subject  every 
year  with  suitable  text-books  in  the  hands  of  all  pupils,  and  not  less  than 
thirty  lessons  per  year.  Text-books  for  the  elementary  schools  are 
"  suitable  "  and  "  approved  "  only  when  one-fifth  of  their  space  is  devoted 
to  alcohol  and  narcotics,  and  high-school  books  must  have  not  less  than 
twenty  pages.  It  is  further  provided  that  the  material  on  alcohol  and 
narcotics  must  be  distributed  throughout  the  book.  The  revised  Con- 
necticut law  is  a  slight  advance.  It  provides  for  "  temperance  instruc- 
tion" in  all  grades  above  the  third  and  excepting  high  school.  Text- 
books must  be  used  above  the  fifth  grade.  But  it  does  not  specify  con- 
cerning the  nature  and  amount  of  "  temperance  instruction." 


TEACHING   OF  HUMAN  PHYSIOLOGY         477 

ment  of  "  physiology  "  on  a  practical  basis.  Moreover,  owing 
to  the  requirement  for  the  book  work,  the  practical  work 
becomes  optional  supplementary  work.  In  short,  the  whole 
arrangement  of  books  on  "  physiology  "  is  in  conformity  with 
the  idea  that  they  are  to  be  used  primarily  as  text-books,  and 
this  is  opposed  so  completely  to  the  practical 

method  that  only  highly  trained  teachers  are  able   Books  of  Phy- 
siology and 
to  make  the  proper  rearrangement  of  the  materials,   other 

In  all  other  sciences  practical  work  is  made  the 
basis,  and  the  leading  books  in  botany,  zoology,  physics,  and 
chemistry   are  arranged   on    a  foundation  of  laboratory  work 
which  practically  precludes  their  exclusive  use  for  recitation. 

The  order  of  study  now  approved  by  the  leaders  of  "  tem- 
perance instruction,"  and  required  by  laws  in  some  States,  is 

regarded  as  pedagogically  absurd  by  many  leading 

Order  of 
educators  and  scientific  men.     In  the  earlier  "  tern-   Study  as 

..,.,.,11         i  .  "approved'* 

perance  physiologies      alcohol  and  narcotics  were 

treated  in  special  chapters,  often  in  appendices ;  but  to  avoid 
any  possibility  that  the  pages  on  alcohol  might  escape  the 
eyes  of  pupils,  and  in  order  to  gain  in  emphasis,  it  is  now 
required  in  some  States  that  this  subject-matter  must  be  dis- 
tributed throughout  the  book,  showing  the  effects  of  alcohol 
and  narcotics  on  each  system  of  organs  —  even  the  bones  ! 
Only  books  with  this  distribution  of  subject-matter  are  now 
approved  by  the  self-appointed  censors  in  the  ranks  of  the 
temperance  leaders.  The  result  of  this  arrangement  is  a  weary- 
ing reiteration  for  pupils,  for  the  "  temperance "  Reiteration 
matter  consists  largely  of  repeated  application  of  results- 
general  statements  to  each  system  of  organs.  Add  to  all  this 
the  fact  that  in  very  similar  books  this  must  be  gone  over  year 
after  year  from  the  early  grades  to  the  high  school  and  in 
books  with  at  least  one-fifth  of  their  space  devoted  to  teaching 
"  temperance,"  and  we  have  the  explanation  why  children  com- 
monly think  that  the  most  important  topics  in  "  human  physi- 
ology "  are  those  of  alcohol  and  tobacco.  Such  over-emphasis 
is  certainly  scientifically  and  pedagogically  unsound. 


4/8  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

Elsewhere  (13.469)  it  is  pointed  out  that  the-  "  sandwich- 
ing "  of  relatively  unimportant  topics,  such  as  that  of  alcohol, 
Continuity  breaks  up  the  continuity  of  the  scientific  study  of 
broken.  physiology.  On  this  ground  alone  we  may  urge 

that  if  "  temperance  instruction "  must  be  given,  it  should  be 
confined  to  a  separate  chapter  where  it  will  not  interfere  with 
the  scientific  teachings  of  the  principles  of  physiology.  To  this 
A  Temper-  a  statement l  made  by  a  temperance  leader  answers 
pSysiSogfcai  that  "temperance"  and  not  "physiology"  is  the 
Movement.  more  important  subject-matter  for  which  the 
arrangement  of  lessons  should  be  adapted.  But  with  this  we 
cannot  agree  after  reading  the  dissertations  by  Horace  Mann, 
Huxley,  Herbert  Spencer,  and  others  who  have  written  in  de- 
fence of  the  study  of  "  human  physiology,"  but  have  made  no 
reference  to  the  effects  of  alcohol  and  narcotics. 

Another  pedagogical  feature  of  "  temperance  instruction  "  in 
which  it  is  unique  among  subjects  commonly  taught  in  elemen- 
tary schools  is  that  of  citations  from  original  sources. 
Original          We  are  all  familiar  with  the  common  form  :  "  Pro- 
fessor   or  Dr. states  it  as  his  opinion  that 

alcohol,"  etc.  On  page  after  page  of  some  "approved"  text- 
books there  are  such  citations,  many  of  which  are  merely 
personal  opinions  which  are  absolutely  worthless  in  science.  In 
no  other  subject  taught  in  elementary  schools  are  original  author- 
ities thus  mentioned;  and  all  other  text-books  are  compiled 
from  the  common  fund  of  established  and  accepted  knowledge. 
Citation  of  original  authorities  in  "  temperance  instruction  " 
suggests  the  suspicion  that  there  is  no  such  common  fund  from 
which  to  draw  materials  on  this  subject. 

The  nature  of  the  subject-matter  relating  to  the  effects  of 


1  "This  is  not  a  physiological,  but  a  temperance  movement.  In  all 
grades  below  the  high  school  this  instruction  should  contain  only  phys- 
iology enough  to  make  the  hygiene  of  temperance  and  other  laws  of 
health  intelligible.  Temperance  should  be  the  chief  and  not  the  sub- 
ordinate topic  and  should  occupy  at  least  one-fourth  the  space  in  text- 
books for  these  grades." — Mary  H.  Hunt,  loc.  cit.,  1897,  p.  47. 


TEACHING   OF  HUMAN  PHYSIOLOGY        479 

alcohol   and   narcotics    in    "  approved "    text-books   has   been 

much  discussed  in  recent  years.     Within  the  limits 

Discussion 

of  this   chapter  it  is  impossible  to  do  more  than   of  Subject- 
Matter  of 

indicate    the    lines    of    the     discussions.1       Most   Temperance 

Instruction. 

prominent  in    these  have  been    the   questions,    Is 

alcohol  a  food?  or,  Is  it  a  poison?      Atwater's   experiments 
demonstrating,  what  had  long  been  supposed  true,   Is  jucohoi  a 
that  to  a  slight  extent  alcohol. may  be  a  source  of  Food? 
energy  in  the  human  body,  led  to  the  charge  of  inaccuracy  in 
many    "  approved "    text-books    which    teach    that    alcohol    is 
always  a  poison.     We  cannot  here  discuss  the  technical  side  of 
this  question,   but  by   way  of  summary  it  may   be  stated  that 
physiologists  now  agree  that  in  minute  quantities  alcohol  is  a 
food  in  the  sense  that  it  is  a  source  of  energy.     But  it  does  not 
follow  that  alcohol  should  be  recommended  as   a  regular  part 
of  human   diet.     The    important   question,    which   Alcohol  a 
physiologists  clearly  appreciate  is  not,  Is  alcohol  a 
food?  but,  What  are  its  effects  as  a  stimulant?     This  is  shown 
by  the  following  quotations  : 

"  Man  has  recourse  to  alcohol,  not  for  the  minute  quantity  of 
energy  which  is  supplied  by  itself,  but  for  its  powerful  influence 
on  the  distribution  of  energy  furnished  by  other  things."  2 

"  Wine,  beer,  tea,  coffee,  etc.,  belong  to  the  important  class  of 
stimulants.  Some  of  them  contain  small  quantities  of  food  sub- 
stance, but  these  are  of  secondary  interest."  3 

"  In  a  preceding  article  I  have  hinted  at  the  fallacy  of  at- 
tempting to  measure  the  real  effects  of  alcohol  by  experiments  in 
which  small  quantities  are  taken  for  a  short  time,  and  only  its 
nutritive  action  is  tested.  .  .  .  That  alcohol  serves  as  a  nutriment, 
there  is  no  reasonable  doubt.  But  its  nutritive  effect  maybe,  often 
is,  counterbalanced  by  its  ulterior  action."  4 


1  The  teacher  should  read  the  editorial  articles  in  the  6>«AW£,  and  the 
papers  by  President  Jordan,  Professor  Atwater,  and  others  named  in  the 
bibliography. 

a  Foster  —  Text-book  of  Physiology.  Fifth  edition,  1889.  Book  II., 
P-  837- 

3  Stewart  —  Manual  of  Physiology,     Fourth  edition,  1900,  p.  481. 

4  Atwater  —  Harper's  Magazine,  Vol.  CL,  p.  850. 


480  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

But  admitting  that  the  food  value  of  alcohol  is  small,  and  its 
effect  as  a  stimulant  great,  are  these  influences  absolutely  and 

constantly  harmful  or  beneficial?     The   answer  to 
Arc  its  Sum-  J 

ulating  this  question   may  be  found  in  the  following  sum- 

harmful?  mary  which  expresses  the  demonstrated  facts  about 
the  physiological  effect  of  alcohol,  as  it  is  commonly  accepted 
by  leaders  in  physiology. 

1.  In  small  quantities  alcohol  is  oxidized  in  the  body,  but 
Summary  of     tne  ener§v  derived  is  insignificant.     No  one  takes 
Physiological   alcohol    as   a   source  of  energy,   but  rather   as    a 
Alcohol.  stimulant. 

2.  Its  stimulating  influences  are  injurious  or  harmless,  de- 
pending upon  many  conditions.     While  undoubtedly  injurious 
in  certain  quantities  and  conditions,  it  may  in  smaller  quantities 
be   harmless   or  even    beneficial,    e.  g.,  as  a  drug   in   certain 
diseases.     More  specifically,  alcohol  especially  affects  the  nerv- 
ous and  vascular  systems,  dilating  blood-vessels,   accelerating 
heart-beat,  and  stimulating  nervous  organs.     All  these  effects 
may  be  injurious,  harmless,  or  even  beneficial,  depending  upon 
highly  variable  conditions,  such  as,  quantity  of  alcohol,  presence 
of  other   food,    and   various   physiological    conditions    of  the 
individual. 

3.  The  limit  of  possible  beneficial  effect  of  alcohol  is  soon 
reached,  and  beyond  that  harm  is  likely  to  result     The  limit  is, 
however,  variable  with  individuals  ;  a  so-called  strictly  moderate 
quantity  being  harmless  to  one  man  and  decidedly  injurious  to 
another. 

4.  Undoubtedly   habitual    excessive    use    tends   to   induce 
diseases  of  many  organs. 

5.  No  individual  can  absolutely  estimate  the  limit  between 
harmless  moderate    use  and  injurious  excessive  use.     Hence, 
habitual  use  of  even  limited  quantities  may  have  its  dangers. 

6.  The  dangers  of  developing  habitual  excessive  use  are  so 
well  known  as  to  require  no  scientific  demonstration. 

7.  While  alcohol  may  be  harmless  under  certain  conditions, 
there  is  no  evidence  that  it  is  useful  to  healthy  men. 


TEACHING   OF  HUMAN  PHYSIOLOGY        481 

8.  It  is  frequently  overlooked  that  many  common  liquors  do 
not  have  the  same  effect  as  pure  alcohol,  for  the  reason  that 
they  contain  substances  far  more  powerful  than  alcohol  itself. 

It  is  clear  that  in  the  light  of  present-day  knowledge  of  the 
physiological  effects  of  alcoholic  liquors  we  cannot  state 

without  qualification  that  they  are  injurious.     This 

,.  ....      Unqualified 

may  or  may  not  be  true,  depending  upon  highly   statements 

variable  conditions ;  and  any  general  statement  is 
at  once  inaccurate  and  misleading.  We  see  the  impossibility 
of  firmly  basing  total  abstinence  from  the  use  of  alcohol  upon 
physiological  facts,  for  this  could  be  done  only  by  scientifically 
demonstrating  that  inevitable  and  invariable  results  follow  the 
use  of  any  alcoholic  liquors  even  in  limited  quantities.  To 
teach  this  was  the  original  purpose  of  the  promoters  of  the 
movement,  and  many  of  the  present  text-books  tend,  through 
over-emphasis,  to  give  pupils  such  an  impression.  But  although 
present-day  physiology  is  unable  to  afford  support  for  such  ab- 
solute temperance  principles,  its  well-established  facts,  as  sum- 
marized above,  show  clearly  that  alcohol  is  not  demonstrably 
useful  to  the  normal  healthy  man.  This  and  the  undisputed 
danger  of  developing  uncontrollable  habits  offers  important  sup- 
port to  appeals  from  considerations  other  than  physiological. 
Here  is  safe  material  for  "  scientific  temperance  instruction," 
but  to  teach  total  abstinence  from  alcohol  as  an  established  law 
of  personal  hygiene  is  educationally  wrong  because  it  is  so 
obviously  false.  Nothing  of  permanent  value  is  to  be  gained 
by  over-estimating  the  physiological  facts  regarding  the  effects  of 
alcohol,  for  while  the  young  children  may  be  misled  for  a  time, 
they  are  sure  to  discover  the  truth  which  will  lower  their  re- 
spect for  teachers  and  text-books,  and  especially  for  a  school 
system  which  encourages  the  teaching  of  things  which  are  very 
doubtful  or  untrue. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  in  the  various  physiological  papers 
written  within  the  past  five  years  the  chief  discussion  of  the 
effects  of  alcohol  are  centred  around  the  question  of  its  limited 
use.  This  is  so  because  the  injurious  effects  of  large  doses  are 

31 


482  THE    TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

so  well  known  as  to  require  no  scientific  demonstration.  Any 
person  with  ordinary  intelligence  is  well  enough  aware  of  the 
Instruction  physical,  mental,  and  moral  ruin  wrought  by  exces- 
Chronic11^  sive  use  of  alconol>  without  having  studied  in  the 
Alcoholism,  public  schools  the  horrible  descriptions  of  chronic 
alcoholism  illustrated  by  awful  pictures  of  drunkards'  stomachs 
and  hobnailed  livers.  Such  teaching  has  no  justification,  for 
detailed  knowledge  of  such  extreme  pathological  conditions  is 
likely  to  have  little  influence  in  comparison  with  that  exerted 
by  the  well-known  facts  which  every  one  gains  from  e very-day 
life.  If  horrible  facts  in  this  line  will  have  any  influence, 
absolute  temperance  reform  ought  to  be  possible  on  the  basis 
of  common  knowledge  without  any  appeal  to  the  science  of 
pathology. 

The  summary  above  includes  all  the  important  well-estab- 
lished principles  regarding  the  physiological  effects  of  alcohol, 
Few  Facts  an(l  little  could  be  added  except  in  details  or 
to  be  taught.  along  the  ]me  of  scientjfic  hypotheses.  Certainly 

the  latter  do  not  belong  in  elementary  text-books,  for  no  sane 
educator  would  approve  teaching  in  elementary  schools  that 
which  is  subject  to  change  with  advancing  knowledge  ;  and 
especially  should  uncertain  physiological  theories  be  avoided 
in  a  subject  like  "  temperance  instruction,"  which  finds  its  one 
justification  in  that  it  is  made  the  basis  for  moral  instruction. 
If  the  leading  physiological  facts  about  alcohol,  as  stated  above, 
are  to  be  presented  to  young  pupils,  they  would,  of  course, 
Less  Space  in  reclinre  some  expansion  into  simple  elementary 
Text-books,  form,  but  at  most  half  a  dozen  pages  would  suffice 
to  state  all  the  important  general  truths.  In  the  excellent 
little  text-book,  Physiology  for  Beginners,  by  Foster  and  Shore, 
two  pages  (instead  of  fifty)  include  all  important  demonstrated 
physiological  facts  about  alcohol,  but  the  book  is  quite  free 
from  the  unimportant  details,  the  platitudes,  the  reiterations, 
the  wild  guesses,  and  the  hypotheses  which  enter  so  prominently 
into  the  "  temperance  instruction"  in  most  "  approved  "  text- 
books. Comparing  this  book  with  the  advanced  treatises  and 


TEACHING   OF  HUMAN  PHYSIOLOGY        483 

with  the  '•  approved "  elementary  books,  we  are  forced  to 
conclude  that  the  important  demonstrated  facts  on  the  strictly 
physiological  side  of  "  temperance  instruction  "  should  be  pre- 
sented in  a  text-book  in  at  most  one-tenth  of  the  space  required 
by  law  and  demanded  by  the  leaders  of  the  movement.  More- 
over, our  limited  knowledge  of  the  physiological  effects  of 
alcohol  does  not  justify  repetition  of  the  study  of  physiology 
for  the  sake  of  giving  temperance  instruction  in  from  five  to 
seven  years  of  the  school  course.  At  most  the  strictly  phys- 
iological facts  deserve  not  more  than  six  or  eight  pages  to  be 
studied  in  some  one  year,  preferably  the  seventh  or  eighth  grade, 
for  such  instruction  must  be  meaningless  to  younger  children. 

We  must  now  consider  "temperance-"  teaching  in  another 
aspect,  for  in   many  text-books   a  larger  part  of  the   subject- 
matter  relating  to  alcohol   is  not  physiology,  but 
more   properly   belongs  to  economics,  ethics,   and   Matter  not  all 
sociology.  cal. 

With  regard  to  the  economical  aspect  of  "  scientific  temper- 
ance," we  believe  with  Professor  Atwater  that  "  statistics  of  the 

nation's  liquor  bill  do  not  appeal  very  strongly  to 

Economics  in 

the  ordinary  man,  still  less  does  the  average  boy   Temperance 
-        .  r~.  ,  .     ,  .  ,  Instruction, 

care  for  them."      The  only  economical  considera- 
tions which  will  make  much  impression  upon  a  modern  boy  is 
the  fact  that  chances  of  employment  for  responsible  positions 
are  vastly  increased  for  total  abstainers.     But  why  should  such 
teaching  be  coupled  with  physiology? 

With  regard  to  the  matter  of  ethical  import,  there  is  a  grow- 
ing belief  among  educators  and  men  of  science  that  the  great- 
est value  of  "  temperance  instruction "  lies  along 

£  till  CHI 

this  line;  but  this  is  no  more  physiological  than  is   Teaching  as 
the  teaching  of  manners,  honesty,   and    the    like. 
Many    teachers   and  men  of  science    urge  that  "temperance 
instruction  "  take  primarily  the  form  of  ethical  appeal ;  but  this 
should  be  made  as  such  and  not  under  the  guise  of  physiology. 
Let  all  "temperance  instruction,"  except  a  few  pages  in  the 
text-book  devoted  to  strictly  physiological  facts,  be  given,  if  it 


484  TEACHING   OF  ZOOLOGY 

is  to  be  given  in  the  schools,  as  part  of  the  general  instruction 
in  morals ;  and,  we  believe,  a  more  lasting  impression  for  good 
will  be  made  upon  the  pupil  than  can  be  obtained  from  any 
attempt  to  warp  the  physiological  facts  into  a  material  basis 
for  moral  instruction.  In  short,  let  the  study  of  "  human 
physiology "  be  freed  from  all  non-physiological  phases  of 
"  temperance  instruction."  There  is  no  sufficient  reason  why 
this  subject  should  continue  to  be  the  scapegoat,  for  litera- 
ture and  history  might  with  much  less  juggling  of  subject- 
matter,  be  made  to  teach  temperance  as  regards  the  use  of 
alcohol. 

In  conclusion,  we  have  seen  in  our  examination  of  "  temper- 
ance instruction  "  that  the  extremely  unsatisfactory  conditions, 
especially  those  arising  from  the  absurd  and  intolerable  laws* 
not  only  interfere  seriously  with  the  teaching  of  "  physiology  " 
in  our  public  schools,  but  also  degrade  it  in  the  estimation  of 
many  prominent  educators  and  scientific  men.  This  should 
not  be  so.  The  study  of  the  human  body  is  a  great  and 
important  subject  which  deserves  to  be  freed  from  the  influence 
of  propagandism,  and  the  teaching  developed  to  the  efficiency 
becoming  a  study  which  is  an  "  all-essential  part  of  a  rational 
education."  To  this  end  all  educators  and  men  of  science 
Weed  of  should  make  a  united  effort  for  decided  changes  in 

United  Effort.  tjie  present  conditions  which  prohibit  advances  in 
the  teaching  of"  physiology"  in  the  public  schools.  At  present 
teachers  in  many  States  are  so  hampered  by  the  absurd  laws 
that  little  improvement  is  possible".  In  some  States  the  laws  are 
not  stringent  or  else  are  not  enforced,  and  hence  the  teachers  are 
more  or  less  free  to  choose  regarding  the  subject-matter.  But 
Changes  great  and  decided  improvement  in  the  teaching  of 
physiology  throughout  the  United  States  can  be 
secured  only  by  beginning  with  the  following  changes  :  — 

1.  Repeal  of  all  existing  laws  and  the  defeat  of  all  pro- 
posed ones  which  place  any  limitations  upon  the  teaching  of 
"  physiology." 

2.  Selection  of  text-books  which  give  only  concise  state- 


TEACHING   OF  HUMAN  PHYSIOLOGY        485 

ments  of  the  essential  physiological  facts  relating  to  alcohol, 
and  these  confined  to  one  chapter  to  be  studied  in  one  of  the 
last  two  years  of  the  elementary-school  course. 

3.  The  teaching  of  non-physiological  facts  of  ethics  and 
economics  which  relate  to  temperance  as  such  and  not  as  part 
of  "  physiology." 

We  agree   with    President  Jordan  that   the   only  adequate 
remedy  for  present   conditions  "  lies  in  allowing  that  science 
shall  be  free  to  teach  its  own  lessons,  and  that  the 
public  schools  shall  not  be  used   by  advocates  of  science 
any  kind  of  social  or  political  reform,  no  matter 
how  meritorious  the  cause  may  be  in  itself." 

"  The  whole  '  scientific  temperance  '  movement  is  opposed 
to  the  movement  for  good  schools  through  the  choice  of  good 
teachers.  It  has  been  judged  by  its  motives,  which  are  good. 
It  will  come  to  be  judged  by  its  results,  and  these  are  bad." x 


1  Popular  Science  Monthly,  Vol.  XLVIIL,  p.  354.     January,  1896. 


Ind 


ex 


[The  indexes  to  the  two  parts  of  this  volume  have,  for  convenience  in  reference,  been 
consolidated.  In  cases  where  a  topic  might  be  taken  to  refer  to  either  the  plant  or 
animal  sides  of  biology,  the  Botany  and  Zoology  parts  of  the  book  are  indicated  below 
in  parenthesis.  Pages  numbered  above  240  are  in  the  Zoology  part.] 


ADAPTATION,  55,  139  (see Ecology). 
Agassiz,  method  of,  107,  306. 
Aims  of  zoology,  259,  262. 
Alcohol,     instruction    concerning, 

473  «• 
Algae,  190;  blue-green,  189. 

Amoeba,  363,  379,  394. 

Analogy,  136. 

Analysis,  48. 

Anatomical     courses      (Zoology), 

269  ff. 
Anatomy,  human,  466 ;  in  zoology 

courses,  268  ff. 
Anatomy,  plant,  143. 
Angiosperms,  204. 
Animals    for   laboratory,    356   ff., 

394  ff. 
Apparatus    (Botany),  home-made, 

221. 
Apparatus  (Zoology),  distribution 

of,   313  ff.;  special  for  zoology, 

409  ff. 
Approach,  method  of,  in  botany, 

119,132,133. 
Aquaria.  393,  409  ff. 

BACTERIA,  188,  471 ;  books,  422. 
Beginning  of  zoology,  104  if.,  340. 
Bibliographies  (Botany),  7,  25,  62, 
8 1,  99,  135,  208,  216,  230-236. 


Bibliographies  (Zoology),  241,  242, 
261,  294,  295,  320,  321,  331,  419 
ff.,  448,  456,  457,  472,  473. 

Biography  in  biology,  291 ;  books, 

433- 

Biology  (Botany),  as  discipline,  14; 
humanistic  value  of,  17  ;  pleasure 
of,  ii;  relation  to  labor,  20 ; 
relation  to  sex  problem,  21. 

Biology  (Zoology)  unified  science, 
250,  332  ff. ;  place  in  curriculum, 
337  ff. ;  year's  course,  337  ff. 

Bodily  activity,  use  of,  34. 

Book  work  in  human  physiology, 
476  ;  in  zoology,  310  ff. 

Books :  animal  natural  history, 
435  ff.;  evolution,  429  ff.;  selected 
lists,  440  ff.;  text-books  of 
zoology  and  physiology,  442  ff.; 
zoology,  417  ff. 

Books,  botanical,  230  ff. 

Botany,  descriptive,  100 ;  geograph- 
ical, 206 ;  informational  content 
of,  69;  parts  of,  to  be  repre- 
sented in  a  course,  115;  relation 
to  sex  problem,  77 ;  synthetic 
course  in,  93,  117;  type  course 
in,  106. 

Bryophyta,  196. 

Bud,  184. 


488 


INDEX 


CASES,  specimen,  412. 
Cause,  56. 
Cej>halopods,  367. 
Character  forming,  37. 
Chart-racks,  213. 
Charts,  218. 

Chemotropism,  plant,  166. 
Classification,  of  plants,  144. 
Classification,  animal,  280  ff.,  425. 
Cobalt  chlorid  test,  178. 
Coelenterates,  363,  381,  397. 
College  admission  in  zoology,  336, 

454- 

Committee  of  Ten,  142. 

Comparison,  126,  133. 

Control  experiment,  129. 

Correlation:  botany  and  zoology, 
331  ff.;  nature-study  and  biology, 
320  ff.;  physiology  and  zoology, 
457  ff>  structure  and  func- 
tion, 344  ff. 

Crayfish,  358,  372  ff.,  404. 

Cryptogams,  186,  ff. 

Culture  value  of  zoology,  250. 

Curriculum  of  high  school;  zool- 
ogy in»  33 l  ff- 

DEALERS  (Botany),  221,  225. 
Dealers  (Zoology),  414  ff. 
Deduction,  52,  53,  299,  304. 
Descartes,  ideals  of,  39. 
Descent  of  man,  252,  289. 
Development,  idea  of,  128. 
Differentiation  (Botany),  139. 
Differentiation    (Zoology),    school 

and  college,  448  ff. 
Digestion,  plant,  165. 
Directing  laboratory  work,  306  ff., 

312  ff. 
Discipline,   scientific,   in    zoology, 

244  ff.,  298  ff . 
Discrimination,  49. 
Dissection,  animal,  271,  411. 
Division    of   labor,    physiological, 

MI,  377- 
Drawings,  316  ff. 


EARTHWORM,  360,  400. 

Echinoderms,  365,  386. 

Ecology  (Botany),  56;  of  leaf,  183; 

of  roots,  172;  plant,  144,  153. 
Ecology,  animal,  275;  books,  426. 
Economic  zoology,  247,  286 ;  books, 

427. 
Education    (Botany),   agricultural, 

20;  aim  of,  31  ;  nature  study  in, 

31- 
Education    (Zoology),  science    in, 

242  ff . ;  zoology  in,  244  ff . 
Elective  courses,  zoology,  334  ff. 
Embryology,  animal,  282  ff.,  376. 
Emotions,  34,  42. 
Energy,  expenditure  of,  by  plants, 

159- 
Equipment,   for  pupils,  212,  219; 

laboratory,  217,  409  ff. 
Essentials   of    physiology,   342  ff., 

465,  468 ;  of  zoology,  292. 
Etiolation,  167. 
Evolution,  books,  429;  in  schools, 

286  ff. ;  in  zoology,  251,  346. 
Experiment,  control,  1 29 ;  value  of, 

54- 
Extraction,  study  of  foods  by,  162. 

FALSE  generalization,  example  of, 

51- 

Fern-allies,  199. 
Fern-earthworm  course    (Botany), 

ii3- 

Ferns,  199. 

Flowering-plants,  203. 
Field   work,    204;    on   fruits   and 

seeds,  158;  on  roots,  173. 
Foods,  plant,  163. 
Frog,  378,  383,  360,  370, 386  ff .,  408. 
Fruit,  outline  for  study,  146  ff. 
Fungi,  193. 

GARDEN,  school,  value  of,  48,  49, 

53- 

Geotropism,  plant,  166. 
Grafting,  180. 
Gymnosperms,  203. 


INDEX 


489 


HALF-YEAR  courses,  335  ff.,  390  ff. 

Hand-lens,  127. 

Hepaticae,  196. 

Histology,  animal,  375,  387,  393. 

Historical  allusion,  96. 

History  of  zoology,  291;  books,  432. 

Homology,  plant,  136. 

Honesty,  intellectual,  38. 

Human  body,  study  of,  390,  457  ff. 

Huxley,  ideas  of,  39. 

Huxley's  method,  352  ff. 

Hydra,  363,  381,  397. 

Hygiene,  470. 

Hypocotyl,  delimitation  of,  170. 

INDUCTION,  29,  299  ff. 

Inference,  50. 

Information  (Botany),  how  to  im- 
part, 41. 

Information  in  zoology,  246  ff.,  296. 

Insects,  361,  372,  384.  407,  412. 

Interest  (Botany),  67;  popular,  in 
nature,  32. 

Interest  (Zoology)  of  pupils,  255  ff ., 
324  ff .,  340  ff . 

Interpretation  of  microscopic  ob- 
jects, 125;  (Zoology),  347. 

Investigation  in  laboratory  study, 
306  ff. 

Irritability,  plant,  166. 

LABORATORY  (Botany),  equip- 
ment for,  217;  lighting  of,  209; 
method  of  seating,  210;  plans 
for,  216. 

Laboratory  (Zoology),  directions 
to  pupils,  312 ;  special  equip- 
ment, 409  ff. ;  minor  problems, 
312  ff.;  technique,  3921!.;  time 
for,  315  ff. ;  work,  295  ff. 

Laboratory  work,  (Botany),  130. 

Lantern,  219. 

Laws,  influence  on  physiology,  464, 

474.  484- 

Leaf,  ecology  of,  183 ;  external 
features,  181 ;  physiology  of, 
181. 


Liberal    education   and     zoology, 

244  ff.,  261  ff. 
Lichens,  195. 
Life-history,  plant,  137. 
Liverworts,  196. 
Logical  order  (Zoology),  345  ff. 

MAGNIFYING  glasses,  217. 

Mammals,  359,  389. 

Materials,  animal,  356  ff.,  394  ff. 

Materials,  plant,  for  demonstration, 
225;  living,  215;  preservation 
of,  222;  values  of,  75  ff. 

Metazoa,  345  ff.,  358  ff. 

Method,  scientific,  laboratory, 
295  ff. 

Method  of  study,  scientific,  41. 

Microscope  (Botany),  217 ;  hori- 
zontal, 217. 

Microscope  (Zoology),  347  ff.,  375. 

Mollusks,  366,  385,  406. 

Morphology,  plant,  143. 

Mosses,  198. 

Museum  preparations,  plant,  225. 

Museum  specimens,  animal,  408, 

4i3- 
Myxomycetes,  187. 

NAMES,  value  of  (Botany),  47, 102. 

National  Educational  Assn.,  Re- 
port of,  142. 

Natural  history  ;  books,  435  ff.  ; 
in  beginning  zoology,  340  ff.  ; 
for  college  entrance,  449  ff . ;  in 
education,  265 ;  in  high  school, 
322  ff. ;  relations  to  zoology, 
263  ff.,  275  ;  vertebrate,  368  ff. 

Nature-study  (Botany),  25 ;  method 
of  thought  in,  44  ff. 

Nature  -  study,  (Zoology),  books, 
320,  435  ff.,  441 ;  relation  to  phys- 
iology, 327;  to  zoology,  321, 

34i- 

Nature,  interpretation  of,  as  beau- 
tiful, 35  ;  popular  interest  in,  32. 

Note-books,  316. 


490 


INDEX 


OBJECT-LESSON,  value  of,  29. 

Observation,  45. 

Oils  in  plants,  164. 

Ontogeny,  plant,  137. 

Outline  of  courses  ;  zoology,  37 1  ff. 

Outlines,  laboratory  (Botany),  146. 


PALAEONTOLOGY,  animal,  285. 

Paramoecium,  363,  379,  395  ff. 

Periodicals,  botanical,  235. 

Periodicals  (Zoology),  434. 

Phanerogams,  203. 

Philosophy  of  biology,  251  ff. ; 
books,  429  ff. 

Phototropism,  plant,  166. 

Phylogeny,  plant,  137. 

Physiography,  plant,  206. 

Physiology,  animal;  247,  272  ff. ; 
introduction  to,  342,  376,  468. 

Physiology,  human ;  relation  to 
biology,  328  ff. ;  to  nature-study, 
327  ;  teaching  in  high  school, 
456 ff.;  text-books,  421,  446. 

Physiology  (Botany),  correlation 
of  animal  and  plant,  140;  of 
roots,  172;  plant,  144,  159. 

Physiology  of  leaf,  181. 

Phytogeography,  206. 

Pleasure,  relation  of  knowledge 
to,  65. 

Point  of  view  (Botany),  104;  im- 
portance of,  89. 

Potassium  permanganate  test,  170. 

Preservatives  for  plant  materials, 
223. 

Preserving  animals,  362,  394  ff. 

Principles  of  zoology,  352  ff.,  372  ff. 

Projection,  optical,  219. 

Proteids  in  plants,  163. 

Protozoa,  in  beginning  work,  345 ff., 
379 ;  materials,  363,  394. 

Psychology,  animal,  276;  books, 
427. 

Pteridophyta,  199. 

Purpose,  56 ;  Pfeffer  on,  58 ;  von 
Sachs  on,  58. 


REALITY,  value  of  study  of  ob- 
jective, 10. 

Reason,  34. 

Reproduction,  knowledge  of,  79. 

Respect  for  rights  of  others,  40. 

Roots,  169;  anatomy  of,  170; 
ecology  of,  172;  physiology  of, 
172;  secondary,  170. 

SCHIZOMYCETES,  1 88. 

Schizophyceae,  189. 

Schizophyta,  188. 

Science  in  education,  9. 

Sciences  in  education,  242  ff. ;  in 
high  school,  332  ff. 

Seed,  outline  for  study,  146  ff. 

Senses,  training  of  the,  46. 

Sentimentalism,  68. 

Shoot,  174;  anatomy  and  morphol- 
ogy of,  175;  ecology  of,  179; 
physiology  of,  177. 

Snail,  366,  385,  406. 

Standard  for  botanical  course,  143  ; 
value  of,  82  ff. 

Starch  in  plants,  163. 

Storage,  methods  of,  213. 

Study,      botanical,      method      of, 

I24ff. 

Synthetic   course    in    botany,   93; 

outline  of,  143. 
Sugar  in  plants,  164. 

TABLE  tops,  finish  for,  211. 
Tables,  laboratory,  form  of,  210. 
Temperance  instruction,  472  ff. 
Text-books ;     human    physiology, 

445  ff. ;     criticisms     on,    465  ff. 

472  ff.;  zoology,  310  ff.,  442. 
Thallophvta,  i86'ff. 
Type,  to  form  a  notion  of,  126. 
Types,  animal,  356  ff.,  381  ff. 
Types   (Botany),   arrangement    of, 

109. 

UNICELLULAR  animals;  in  begin- 
ning work,  345  ff.,  379 ;  materials, 
363>  394  ff-' 


INDEX 


491 


VALUE  of  Zoology;  as  discipline, 
244  ff. ;  as  information,  246  ff . 

Verification  in  laboratory  study, 
301  ff. 

Vertebrates,  367  ff.,  386  ff.,  408. 

WORMS,  364,  382,  400. 


XYLONITE,  use  of,  227. 

ZOOLOGY  ;  college  entrance,  454  ; 
divisions  of,  263  ;  in  high-school 
curriculum,  331  ff.  ;  in  school 
and  college,  448  ff . ;  relation  to 
botany,  331  ff. ;  subject-matter, 
261  ff. 


AMERICAN  TEACHERS  SERIES 

Edited  by  JAMES  E.  RUSSELL,  Ph.D. 

DEAN    OF    TEACHERS    COLLEGE,    COLUMBIA    UNIVERSITY 


In  all  the  field  of  education  there  are  no  problems  more  difficult  to 
solve  than  those  pertaining  to  the  work  of  the  secondary  school.  What 
is  the  aim  of  secondary  education  ?  What  is  its  function  in  modern 
society?  What  knowledge  is  of  most  worth?  What  means  and 
methods  produce  the  best  results  ?  Such  questions  as  these  come  to 
every  secondary  teacher  and  demand  an  answer.  The  most  encourag- 
ing sign  of  the  times  is  the  growth  of  a  teaching  profession  pledged  to 
study  these  problems  intelligently  and  to  find  some  rational  solution 
of  them. 

The  "  American  Teachers  Series  "  will  review  the  principal  subjects 
of  the  secondary  school  curriculum.  The  purpose  is  to  discuss  the 
educational  value  of  each  subject,  the  reasons  for  including  it  in  the 
curriculum,  the  selection  and  arrangement  of  materials  in  the  course, 
the  essential  features  of  class  instruction,  and  the  various  helps  which 
are  available  for  teachers'  use.  The  books  are  not  intended  to  correct 
the  faults  of  ignorant  teaching ;  they  are  not  put  forth  as  manuals  of 
infallible  methods.  They  are  designed  to  be  contributions  to  the  pro- 
fessional knowledge  necessary  in  secondary  education,  and  are  ad- 
dressed to  teachers  of  liberal  culture  and  special  scholarship  who  are 
seeking  to  make  their  knowledge  more  useful  to  their  pupils  and  their 
pupils  more  useful  to  the  State. — From  the  Editor's  Preface. 


The  Teaching  of  Latin  and  Greek.  By  Professors  CHARLES  E.  BEN. 
NEXT  and  GEORGE  P.  BRISTOL,  Cornell  University.  Crown  8vo.  354 
pages.  $1.50 

The  Teaching  of  History  and  Civics.  By  Professor  HENRY  E. 
BOURNE,  Western  Reserve  University.  Crown  8vo.  395  pages.  $1.50 

The  Teaching  of  Chemistry  and  Physics.  By  Professors  ALEX- 
ANDER  SMITH,  University  of  Chicago,  and  EDWIN  H.  HALL,  Harvard 
University.  Crown  8vo.  384  pages.  $1.50 

The  Teaching  of  English.  By  Professors  GEORGE  R.  CARPENTER  and 
FRANKLIN  T.  BAKER,  of  Columbia  University,  and  Professor  FRED 
NEWTON  SCOTT,  of  the  University  of  Michigan.  Crown  Svo.  390 
pages.  $1.50. 

The  Teaching  of  Mathematics.  By  Professor  J.  W.  A.  YOUNG,  Uni- 
versity of  Chicago.  $1.50. 

The  Teaching  of  Biology.  By  Professors  FRANCIS  E.  LLOYD  and 
MAURICE  E.  BIGELOW,  Teachers  College.  $1.50. 


Longmans,  Green,  &•  Co's  Publications. 

BOTANY. 

Bennett    and    Murray  —  A    Handbook    of    Cryptogamic 
Botany. 

By  ALFRED  W.  BENNETT,  M.A.,  B.Sc.,  F.L.S.,  Lecturer  on  Botany 
at  St.  Thomas's  Hospital,  and  GEORGE  MURRAY,  F.L.S.,  Senior  Assist- 
ant, Department  of  Botany,  British  Museum;  Examiner  in  Botany, 
Glasgow  University.  With  378  Illustrations.  The  book  is  arranged 
in  the  following  subdivisions:  I.  Vascular  Cryptogams;  II.  Muscin;je; 
III.  Characeae;  IV.  Algae;  V.  Fungi;  VI.  Mycetozoa;  VII.  Proto- 
phyta.  8vo.  481  pages.  $5.00 

Weathers— A  Practical  Guide  to  Garden  Plants. 

By  JOHN  WEATHERS,  F.R.H.S.,  formerly  of  the  Royal  Gardens, 
Kew.  8vo.  About  1,200  pages.  $7.50  net 

Curtis — A  Text- Book  of  General  Botany. 

By  CARLTON  C.  CURTIS,  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  Tutor  in  Botany  in  Columbia 
University.  With  87  Illustrations.  Large  8vo.  Pp.  viii~36o.  $3.00* 

A  Practical  Text-Book  of  Plant  Physiology. 

By  Dr.  DANIEL  TREMBLY  MACDOUGAL,  Director  of  the  Laboratories 
of  the  New  York  Botanical  Garden,  Bronx  Park.  With  150  Illustra- 
tions. Large  8vo.  366  pages.  $3.00 

***  A  book  containing  a  discussion  of  the  principles  of  the 
general  physiology  of  plants,  with  detailed  directions  for  experiments 
arranged  lor  demonstration  and  original  work.  Suitable  for  use  in 
colleges  and  universities  as  well  as  by  the  private  student  or  teacher 
in  high  schools.  The  treatment  of  the  fundamental  properties  of 
protoplasm  given,  will  be  of  interest  to  physiologists  and  biologists 
in  general. 

Sorauer — A  Popular  Treatise  on  the  Physiology  of  Plants. 

For  the  Use  of  Gardeners  or  for  Students  of  Horticulture  and  of  Agricul- 
ture. By  Dr.  PAUL  SORAUER,  Director  of  the  Experimental  Station  at  the 
Royal  Pomological  Institute  in  Proskau  (Silesia).  Translated  by  F. 
E.  WEISS,  B.Sc.,  F.L.S.  With  33  Illustrations.  8vo.  Pp.  x-256. 
$3-00* 

Tubeuf— Diseases   of   Plants   Induced    by    Cryptogamic 
Parasites. 

Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Pathogenic  Fungi,  Slime  Fungi,  Bacteria 
and  Algae.  Translated  from  the  German  of  Dr.  CARL  FREIHERR  VON 
TUBEUF,  of  the  University  of  Munich,  by  WILLIAM  G.  SMITH,  B.Sc., 
Ph.D.,  Lecturer  on  Plant  Physiology  to  the  University  of  Edinburgh. 
With  330  Illustrations.  8vo.  612  pages.  $5.50 


Longmans,  Green,  <5r  Go's  Publications. 

PHYSIOLOGY,    BIOLOGY,    ETC. 
For  Complete  List  of  Books  in  these  subjects  see  Messrs.  Longmans'  General  Catalogue. 

Barnett— The  Making  of  the  Body. 

A  Children's  Book  on  Anatomy  and  Physiology,  for'  School  and  Home 
Use.  By  Mrs.  S.  A.  BARNETT,  Author  of  "The  Making  of  the 
Home."  With  113  Illustrations.  I2mo.  $0.60 

Beddard — Elementary  Zoology. 

By  FRANK  E.  BEDDARD,  M.A.,  F.R.S.  With  93  Illustrations.  I2mo. 
217  pages.  $0.90* 


Mrs.  L.  L.  W.  Wilson,  Girls' 
Normal  School,  Philadelphia,  Pa.:— 
"  I  know  of  no  small  text-book  so 
up  to  date." 

Prof.  J.  K.  Vandenburg,  The 
Boardman  Manual  Training  High 


School,  New  Haven,  Conn.:—"  The 
illustrations  of  the  book  are  excel- 
lent, surpassing  in  many  respects 
any  similar  collection  in  any  Elemen- 
tary Zoology  I  have  seen.  This  to 
me  is  the  strong  point  of  the  book." 


Bidgood — Practical  Elementary  Biology. 

By  JOHN  BIDGOOD,  B.Sc.,  F.L.S.     With  226  Illustrations  and  full 

index.      I2mo.     362  pages.     $1.50 

"  The  types  described  in  the  following  pages  have  been  selected 
as  fairly  representing  the  vegetable  and  animal  worlds,  and  as 
being  easily  procurable." 

French — Animal   Activities. 

A  First  Book  in  Zoology.  By  NATHANIEL  S.  FRENCH,  Ph.D.,  Rox- 
bury  High  School,  Roxbury,  Mass.  I2mo.  205  illustrations.  $1.20* 

Furneaux — Elementary  Physiology. 

By  W.  FURNEAUX,  F.R.G.S.  Illustrated  with  218  Wood-cuts.  (LONG- 
MANS'ELEMENTARY  SCIENCE  MANUALS.)  I2mo.  256  pages.  $0.80* 

Moore — Elementary  Physiology. 

By  BENJAMIN  MOORE,  M.A.,  formerly  Professor  of  Physiology  in  Yale 
University.  With  many  Illustrations^  I2mo.  301  pages.  $1.20* 

Thornton — Human  Physiology. 

By  JOHN  THORNTON,  M.A.,  Author  of  *'  Elementary  Physiography," 
"  Advanced  Physiography,"  etc.  With  268  Illustrations,  some  of  which 
are  colored.  Crown  8vo.  $1.50* 

The  subject  is  described  throughout  the  book  from  the  practical 
point  of  view,  and  the  student  is  taught,  both  in  the  text  and  by 
means  of  an  appendix  of  practical  exercises,  how  to  accompany  the 
study  of  theory  with  simple  experiments. 

The  apparatus  necessary  for  carrying  out  the  experiments 
described  is  very  simple  and  inexpensive,  and  can  easily  be  pro- 
vided by  any  school  in  which  such  a  course  is  desired. 


AMERICAN  CITIZEN 

Produced  under  the  general  Editorship  of  ALBERT  BUSHNELL  HART, 
LL.D.,  of  Harvard  University. 

Wright's  Outline  of  Practical  Sociology. 

With  Special  Reference  to  American  Conditions. 
By  CARROLL 'D.  WRIGHT,  LL.D.,  formerly  United  States  Commis- 
sioner of  Labor ;   President  of  Clark  College.      Large  crown  8vo,  with 
21  Maps  and  Diagrams.     Sixth  Edition,  Revised.     $2.00. 

Dewey's  Financial  History  of  the  United  States. 

By  DAVIS  RICH  DEWEY,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Economics  and  Statis- 
tics, Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology.  With  18  Specially  Pre- 
pared Charts.  Crown  8vo.  Third  Edition,  Revised.  $2.00. 

Hart's  Actual  Government. 

As  Applied  Under  American  Conditions. 

By  ALBERT  BUSHNELL  HART,  LL.D.,  Professor  of  History  in  Har- 
vard University;  Author  of  "The  Formation  of  the  Union,"  etc.,  etc. 
With  Illustrations)  Maps,  and  Diagrams.  New  Edition,  Thoroughly 
Revised.  $2.25. 

McCIain's  Constitutional  Law  in  the  United  States. 

By  the  Honorable  EMLIN  McCLAiN,  Judge  of  the  Supreme  Court, 
Iowa,  sometime  Lecturer  on  Constitutional  Law  in  the  State  Univer- 
sity of  Iowa;  Author  of  "A  Treatise  on  the  Criminal  Law,"  etc.,  etc. 
With  Appendix  of  Documents,  Index,  etc.  $2.00. 

Seligman's  Principles  of  Economics. 

With  Special  Reference  to  American  Conditions. 
By  EDWIN  R.  A.  SELIGMAN,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  McVickar  Professor  of 
Political   Economy,    Columbia   University.      With   Maps   and  Chaits, 
some  of  which  are  colored.      Revised  and  enlarged.    $2.40. 

International  Law. 

By  JOHN  BASSETT  MOORE,  LL.D.,  Hamilton  Fish  Professor  of  Inter- 
national Law  and  Diplomacy,  Columbia  University.  [Preparing 

Ripley's  American  Transportation  Problems;  Railroads 
and  Waterways. 

By  WILLIAM  Z.  RIPLEY.  Professor  of  Economics  in  Harvard  Univer- 
sity. [Preparing 
*#*  Other  volumes  arranged  for  and  in  preparation. 


LONGMANS,  GREEN,  &  CO* 
91-93  FIFTH  AVE^  NEW  YORK 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 

AN  INITIAL  PINE  OP  25  CENTS 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED  FOR  FAILURE  TO  RETURN 
THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  SO  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY  AND  TO  $1.QO  ON  THE  SEVENTH  DAY 
OVERDUE. 


APR  5    tm 


:r( 


DEC  16 


1957 


JUM  V? 

RET.   JUN  i  2  196! 


SEP  l 


JUL 


JUL  7    REC'D 


LIBEART,  COLLEGE  OP  AGRICULTURE,  DAVIS 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

5m-2,'42(9630s> 


4«212 

QP315 

T.lrvurl       ]?    E 

L5 

Thft    t<s»^p.l 

irifl^   of*   "hi  ol  - 

oerv  in  the 

secondnrv 

school. 

*pR  5      f96< 

ALIf?  1  n  loco 

«ui5  i  y  lyoo 

/ 

^ 

f.  COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE,  DAVIS 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 


